Preface xiii
1 Application of MOFs on Removal of Emerging Water Contaminants 1
Nguyen Minh Viet, Tran Thi Viet Ha, and Nguyen Le Minh Tri
Abbreviated list 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Sources of Emerging Water Contaminants 1
1.1.2 Emerging Water Contaminants Treatment Methods 2
1.1.3 MOFs as Exceptional Materials for Water Remediation 7
1.2 MOFs Strategies in Water Remediation 7
1.2.1 Adsorption 8
1.2.2 Catalyst 10
1.2.3 Synergistic Effect of Adsorption and Photocatalyst 12
1.3 Emerging Water Contaminants by MOFs 12
1.3.1 Organic Dyes 12
1.3.2 Adsorption 12
1.3.3 Photocatalytic and Electrostatic Activities 13
1.3.4 PPCPs 13
1.3.5 Adsorption 14
1.3.6 Photocatalytic Activities 14
1.3.7 Herbicides and Pesticides 15
1.3.8 Adsorption 15
1.3.9 Photocatalytic Activities 16
1.3.10 Industrial Compounds/By-products 17
1.3.11 Adsorption 17
1.3.12 Photocatalytic Activities 17
1.4 Challenges and Perspective in Using MOFs for the Removal of Emerging Water Contaminants 17
1.5 Conclusion 18
2 Metal-Organic Frameworks and Their Stepwise Preparatory Methods (Synthesis) for Water Treatment 27
Debarati Chakraborty and Prof. Siddhartha S. Dhar
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Classification of Metal-Organic Frameworks 28
2.3 Synthesis of MOFs 29
2.3.1 Conventional Solvothermal/Hydrothermal and Non-Solvothermal Method 29
2.3.2 Room-Temperature Synthesis 30
2.3.3 Unconventional Methods 30
2.4 Alternative Synthesis Methods 31
2.4.1 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis 31
2.4.2 Electrochemical Synthesis 32
2.4.3 Sonochemical Synthesis 34
2.4.4 Surfactant-Assisted Synthesis 35
2.4.5 Layer-by-Layer Synthesis 36
2.5 Factors Affecting the Synthesis of MOFs 37
2.5.1 Solvents 37
2.6 Temperature and pH Effects on the Synthesis of MOFs 38
2.7 Water Regeneration and Wastewater Treatment Using MOF Membranes 39
2.8 Membrane Filtration 39
2.9 Microfiltration (MF) 39
2.10 Ultrafiltration (UF) 40
2.11 Nanofiltration (NF) 40
2.12 Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Forward Osmosis (FO) 41
2.13 Membrane Distillation (MD) 41
2.14 Membrane Pervaporation (PV) 42
2.15 Conclusion 43
3 Application of MOFs in the Removal of Pharmaceutical Waste from Aquatic Environments 53
Gagandeep Kaur, Parul Sood, Lata Rani, and Nitin Verma
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 The Potential of MOFs and Their Analogs to Resist Water Stability 55
3.3 Methods for the Development and Design of Aqueous-Stable Composites of Metal-Organic Frameworks 56
3.4 Synthesis and Design of Water-Stable MOF-Derived Materials 57
3.5 MOFs and Their Hybrids as Versatile Adsorbents for Capturing Pharmaceutical Drugs 58
3.6 MILs and Their Derived Compounds 58
3.7 Pristine MILs 58
3.8 MILs Composites 59
3.9 MILs-Derived Materials 60
3.10 ZIFs and Their Derived Compounds 60
3.11 Pristine ZIFs 60
3.12 ZIFs Composites 61
3.13 Materials Derived from ZIFs 61
3.14 UiOs Composite Materials 62
3.15 UiOs-Derived Materials 63
3.16 Pharmaceutical Drug Resistance 63
3.17 Conclusion 64
4 Efficiency of MOFs in Water Treatment Against the Emerging Water Contaminants Such as Endocrine Disruptors, Pharmaceuticals, Microplastics, Pesticides, and Other Contaminants 73
Jogindera Devi and Ajay Kumar
4.1 Introduction 73
4.2 Chemical Contaminants: Those Mysterious Ingredients in Ground and Surface Water 74
4.2.1 Endocrine Disruptors (EDs) 74
4.2.2 Microplastics (MPs) 74
4.2.3 Contaminants from the Agriculture Sector 75
4.2.4 Pharmaceutical Effluents 75
4.3 MOFs 76
4.3.1 MOF Stability in the Aqueous Phase 77
4.3.2 Improving the Water Stability of MOFs: General Enhancement Strategies 77
4.4 Possibilities for Wastewater Treatment Applications Using MOFs 78
4.4.1 MOF-Supported Adsorption & Photocatalysis 79
4.4.2 - Interactions 80
4.4.3 Electrostatic Interactions 80
4.4.4 Hydrophobic Interactions 81
4.4.5 H-Bonding 82
4.5 Use of MOFs for Water Remediation: Issues & Perspectives 82
4.6 Future 85
4.7 Conclusions 85
5 Metal-Organic Frameworks for Wastewater Contaminants Removal 95
Khushbu Sharma, Priyanka Devi, and Prasann Kumar
5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Aqueous Phase MOF Stability 96
5.3 MOF Degradation in Water 97
5.4 Influence of MOF Structure 97
5.5 2D Nanostructured Coating 97
5.6 3D Nanostructure of MOF 98
5.7 MOF-Based Materials Adsorption Processes for Heavy Metal Oxyanion 99
5.8 Remediation Through Perfect MOFs 102
5.9 Interaction of MOFs with Other Species 102
5.10 With the Use of MOF Composites 103
5.11 Removal of Metal Ions through Adsorption 105
5.12 MOF Composites are Used for Removal 106
5.13 COFs are a New Class of Materials that Have Similar MOF Structures 107
5.14 Application of MOF Composites 108
5.15 Gas Separation and Adsorption 109
5.16 MOF Composites 110
5.17 Agrochemical Adsorption and Removal 111
5.18 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Adsorption Removal Products (PPCPs) 112
5.19 MOFs for Photocatalytic Elimination of Organic Pollutants 113
5.20 Conclusion 113
Acknowledgment 114
Author Contributions 114
Conflicts of Interest 115
6 Green Applications of Metal-Organic Frameworks for Wastewater Treatment 119
Ankita Saini, Sunil Kumar Saini, and Parul Lakra
6.1 Introduction 119
6.2 Role of Green Chemistry in Preparation of MOFs 122
6.3 Green Application of MOFs in the Removal of Contaminants from Wastewater 124
6.3.1 MOFs for the Removal of Inorganic Contaminants 125
6.3.2 MOFs for the Removal of Organic Contaminants 136
6.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects 138
6.5 Conflict of Interest 139
7 Case Studies (Success Stories) on the Application of Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) in Wastewater Treatment and Their Implementations; Review 151
Arpit Kumar, Mahesh Rachamalla, and Akshat Adarsh
7.1 Introduction 151
7.2 Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) 154
7.2.1 Properties and Applications of MOFs 154
7.3 Applications of MOFs in Wastewater Treatment: Case Studies 156
7.3.1 Forward Osmosis (FO) Membranes 159
7.3.2 Application and Effectiveness 159
7.3.3 Reverse Osmosis (RO) Membranes 160
7.3.4 Application and Effectiveness 161
7.3.5 Nano Filter (NF) Membranes 162
7.3.6 Application and Effectiveness 163
7.3.7 Ultrafiltration (UF) Membranes 164
7.3.8 Application and Effectiveness 165
Summary 166
Acknowledgment 167
8 Prospects and Potentials of Microbial Applications on Heavy-Metal Removal from Wastewater 177
Dipankar Ghosh, Shubhangi Chaudhary, and Snigdha Dhara
8.1 Introduction 177
8.2 Mainstream Avenues to Remediate Heavy Metals in Wastewater 178
8.3 The Microbial Recycling Approach 179
8.4 General Overview of Heavy-Metal Pollution in Wastewater 181
8.5 Techniques for Heavy-Metal Removal 183
8.6 Microbial and Biological Approaches for Removing Heavy Metals from Wastewater 186
8.7 Biological Remediation Approaches for Heavy-Metal Removal 187
8.8 Microbial Bioremediation Approaches 190
8.9 Bioengineering Approaches on Microbes for Improving Heavy-Metal Removal from Wastewater 191
8.10 Conclusion 192
Acknowledgment 193
9 Removal of Organic Contaminants from Aquatic Environments Using Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) Based Materials 203
Linkon Bharali and Siddhartha S. Dhar
9.1 Introduction 203
9.2 MOF-Based Materials 205
9.2.1 MOFMetal Nanoparticle Materials 205
9.2.2 MOFMO Materials 206
9.2.3 MOFQuantum Dot Materials 207
9.2.4 MOFSilica Materials 207
9.2.5 MOFCarbon Materials 208
9.2.6 Coreshell Structures of MOFs 209
9.2.7 MOFEnzyme Materials 210
9.2.8 MOFOrganic Polymer Materials 210
9.3 Environmental Effects of MOF-Based Materials 211
9.4 Conclusion 215
10 Reformed Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) for Abstraction of Water Contaminants Heavy-Metal Ions 227
Prakash B. Rathod, Rahul A. Kalel, Mahendra Pratap Singh Tomar, Akshay Chandrakant Dhayagude, and Parshuram D. Maske
10.1 Introduction 227
10.2 Metal-Organic Frameworks 228
10.3 Sorption Enrichment by Modification of MOFs 229
10.4 Toxic-Metal Ion Adsorption by MOFs 231
10.4.1 MOFs for Mercury Adsorption 231
10.4.2 MOFs for Lead Adsorption 234
10.4.3 MOFs for Cadmium Adsorption 235
10.4.4 MOFs for Chromium Removal 236
10.4.5 MOFs for Arsenic Removal 238
10.4.6 MOFs for Heavy Metals Phosphate Removal 239
10.4.7 MOFs for Nickel Adsorption 240
10.4.8 MOFs for Selenium Adsorption 240
10.4.9 MOFs for Uranium Adsorption 240
10.5 Future Perspective 241
10.6 Future Scope 241
10.7 Conclusions 242
11 Application of Algal-Polysaccharide Metal-Organic Frameworks in Wastewater Treatment 251
Dharitri Borah, Jayashree Rout, and Thajuddin Nooruddin
11.1 Introduction 251
11.1.1 Water Pollutants and Sources 251
11.1.2 Common Wastewater Treatment Techniques 252
11.1.3 Metal-Organic Frameworks for Wastewater Treatment 252
11.1.4 Polysaccharide-Metal-organic Frameworks (Ps-MOFs) 253
11.2 Polysaccharides in Algae/cyanobacteria (AlPs) 254
11.2.1 Polysaccharides in Cyanophyceae 254
11.2.2 Polysaccharides in Chlorophyceae 258
11.2.3 Polysaccharides in Rhodophyceae 258
11.2.4 Polysaccharides in Phaeophyceae 259
11.3 Synthesis of Algal Polysaccharide MOFs (ALPs-MOFs) 259
11.3.1 Alginate-MOFs 260
11.3.2 Cellulose-MOFs 262
11.3.3 Agar-MOFs 263
11.4 Characterization of AlP-MOFs 264
11.5 Adsorption Mechanism of AlPs-MOFs 268
11.6 Regeneration of AlPs-MOFs 271
11.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects 272
12 Ecological Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution in Water Resources 281
Swati Singh and K. V. Suresh Babu
12.1 Introduction 281
12.2 Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Heavy Metals in the Environment 282
12.3 Impacts of Heavy Metal Pollution 283
12.4 Water Quality Assessment Using Pollution Indices 286
12.4.1 Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI) 287
12.4.2 Statistical Technique 288
12.5 MOFs for Heavy Metal Contaminant Removal from Water 289
12.6 Conclusion 290
13 Organic Contaminants in Aquatic Environments: Sources and Impact Assessment 299
Shipa Rani Dey, Priyanka Devi, and Prasann Kumar
13.1 Introduction 299
13.2 The Various Forms and Causes of Chemical Pollutants 300
13.3 Increasing Contaminant Occurrence in Aquatic Systems 302
13.4 Identifying Potential Points of Entry for New Pollutants into Aquatic Systems 304
13.5 Groups of Trace Pollutants and ECs 305
13.5.1 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) 305
13.6 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) 306
13.7 Concentrations of Micropollutants in Aquatic Organisms 308
13.8 Methods for Micropollutant Removal 308
13.9 Mitigation of Aqueous Micropollutants 310
13.10 Chemical Treatment of Wastewater Discharge 311
13.11 Conclusion 311
Acknowledgment 312
Authors Contributions 312
Conflicts of Interest 312
14 Physicochemical Properties and Stability of MOFs in Water Environments 319
Priya Saharan, Vinit Kumar, Indu Kaushal, Ashok Kumar Sharma, Narender Ranga, and Dharmender Kumar
14.1 Introduction 319
14.2 Background and Future Scope of MOFs 320
14.3 Techniques Used to Determine the Physicochemical Properties of MOFs 320
14.3.1 Powder X-Ray Diffraction (PXRD) 321
14.3.2 BET Surface Area Analyzer 321
14.3.3 Electron Microscopy and Elemental Analysis 322
14.3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 322
14.3.5 Fourier-Transform Infrared (FT-IR) 322
14.4 Physicochemical Properties of MOFs and Their Effects on Various Applications 322
14.4.1 Porosity 322
14.4.2 Size and Morphology 323
14.4.3 Chemical Reactivity 325
14.4.4 Chemical Stability 327
14.4.5 Thermal Stability 329
14.4.6 Mechanical Stability 331
14.5 Conclusion 332
15 Metal-Organic Framework Adsorbents for Indutrial Heavy-Metal Wastewater Treatment 337
Gopal Sonkar
15.1 Introduction 337
15.2 The Applications of MOFs 338
15.3 Comparison Between MOF Adsorbents and Bio-Based Adsorbents 338
15.4 Heavy Metal Contaminant Sources and Impacts 340
15.5 Adsorption 343
15.5.1 The Adsorption Process 343
15.5.2 Adsorption Mechanisms 344
15.5.3 Adsorption Parameters 344
15.5.4 Different Processes for Methods of Adsorption 345
15.6 A Specific Review on Tea-Waste Adsorption 347
15.7 Conclusions 348
16 Evaluation of MOF Applications for Groundwater Arsenic Mitigation of the Middle Ganga Plains of Bihar, India 355
Arun Kumar, Vivek Raj, Mohammad Ali, Abhinav, Mahesh Rachamalla, Dhruv Kumar, Arti Kumari, Rakesh Kumar, Prabhat Shankar, and Ashok Kumar Ghosh
16.1 Arsenic Contamination in the Groundwater of Bihar 355
16.2 Status of Groundwater Arsenic Exposure in the Affected Population 361
16.2.1 Mitigation Status in the Arsenic-Exposed Area of Bihar 364
16.2.2 Application of MOFs in Arsenic Removal from Groundwater 364
16.2.3 Conclusion 365
Index 375
