Chapter 1: Theories of Gang InvolvementThis section includes discussion of current understandings and theory relating to the presence, development, and growth of gangs. Interactional theory suggests that gang membership arises from negative peer relationships, poor social structural environments, weak relationships, and an environment that is supportive of crime (Alleyne & Wood, 2014). Social control theory says that adolescents join gangs because they do not have positive relationships and do not have access to normal social norms (Dickson-Gomez et al, 2017). If one does not have good relationships with positive peers and positive role models, he may feel as if a gang is the only viable option. Multiple marginalization is defined as a lack of employment opportunities, poor living conditions, poverty, and family and community stress (Dickson-Gomez et al, 2017). This means that there are many factors causing stress, making it appear as if there is no good way out. A gang might seem like a way to get out of a bleak home situation. Social disorganization theory states that a community structure fails to see the value in its residents and does not keep social control (Sampson and Groves, 1989). A community cannot feel connected or have social control when there are higher crime rates and juvenile delinquency such as in disadvantaged neighborhoods (Santiago et al., 2011; Sampson and Groves, 1989).
Chapter 2: Attachment TheoryAttachment theory has the utility to add to the existing knowledge base about gang membership. Children's relationships with their primary caregivers are the foundation for their future relationships (Bowlby, 1998; Parrigon, et al., 2015). A secure attachment forms if the primary caregiver is consistently providing a safe secure base for the child from which he can explore the environment and return for comfort and support (Bowlby, 1998). An insecure attachment is formed when the caregiver is not consistent with care or is neglectful (Bowlby, 1988).
Attachment theory posits that the earliest human interactions shape our survival functions (Schore & Schore, 2012). Early interactions between primary caregiver (attachment figure) and infant influence the brain systems' maturation and organization, which causes affect and self-regulation (Schore & Schore, 2012; Hill, 2015). Affect is how one's emotion is communicated through facial expressions, body movements, and tone of voice (Hill, 2015). During infancy, it is the primary caregiver's job to regulate the child during states of hyper- or hypo arousal (Hill, 2015). Early attachment communications are crucial to neurobiological systems in the right brain, which is where stress regulation, emotional processing, and regulation of self are all found (Schore & Schore, 2012). The primary attachment figure, in being that secure attachment figure and responding appropriately to an infant's needs, can soothe and regulate his internal system, thereby teaching emotional regulation at an early age.
Trauma can influence brain development. If one has an insecure attachment, it can affect the person in a lifelong way. Kim and Page (2013) found that insecurely attached children develop behavioral problems more frequently, especially in a school setting, as opposed to securely attached children. Konishi and Hymel (2014) found that adolescents have a difficult time handing anger, which can lead to mental health and physical problems, including bullying, gang involvement, substance abuse, dating violence, low academic performance, and peer rejection. Insecurely attached children may turn to gangs as a way of coping with the lack of having a consistent attachment figure (De Vito, 2017). They may have been looking for a secure base in the gang membership, so they would have a replacement family, searching for that stability (De Vito, 2017).
The attachment relationship between social worker and client is of critical importance. Schore & Schore (2012) discuss how attachment theory is a theory of regulation and developing an attachment to a therapist can assist in internal affect regulation. The therapist takes on that attachment role and can help the client regulate emotions internally, by becoming that secure base. This relationship can repair damage done previously and can help create a new way of coping (Schore & Schore, 2012). A client can develop a resilient self through a secure attachment that can then have meaningful relationships (Schore & Schore, 2012). Since gang members are seeking attachment figures that were not present in childhood, as youth develop meaningful relationships with therapists or school counselors, that counselor can take on a role of an attachment figure, thus repairing that damage and possibly intervening in the way of gang prevention.
De Vito (2019) was a qualitative research study that promoted the use of attachment theory to analyze motivating/disengagement factors for gang involvement. The voices of fourteen former gang members are heard through qualitative interviews. Thematic analysis was used to identify the following themes: Lack of Family Consistency, Brotherhood, Sisterhood, Unity: Gang as Replacement Family, No other Option, and Jail, Death, or Turnaround: Making the Decision to Disengage. In this chapter, there is an emphasis on attachment theory driving gang membership, which is a key finding of my qualitative research. There is a discussion of how and why attachment theory is key in our understanding of gang members' behavior, and the importance of a safe educational setting in preventing or responding to gang issues.
Chapter 3: Gangs as FamilyGangs function because of internal group processes much like a military organization or corporation. There are leaders and a hierarchy of command with people having their own duties and responsibilities. Gangs can be seen as a family for youth. They can be an extension of their family or in some cases actually take the place of the family. Gangs have been said to function like family systems. Some similarities include feeling protected, receiving affection, and having a sense of belonging and loyalty (Ruble and Turner, 2000). If there is a lack of attachment figure in the family, then youth will look outside the family of origin to find a replacement attachment figure. Youth look up to their parents as role models for support, so having no suitable family role model would be a major risk factor (Alleyne and Wood, 2014; Walters, 2016). Lack of strong family attachment can increase interest in crime, since youth will likely not care about parents' opinions, discipline, or school performance, leaving them open to gangs, crime, and poor peer influences (McNulty and Bellair, 2003). The gangs become a surrogate family, filling the void of the family of origin (Ruble and Turner, 2000). If there is no positive role model in the family, another person can become a role model outside of the family. Another attachment figure can step in to fill a void (Ainsworth, 1989).
Chapter 4: Former Gang Members Speak: Themes/Findings from Qualitative Study (why do they join?)
ResultsThe following four themes were identified: Lack of Family Consistency, Brotherhood, Sisterhood, Unity: Gang as Replacement Family, No other Choice, and Jail, Death, or a Turnaround: Making the Decision to Disengage. Participants' verbatim quotes were included to highlight each theme. No identifying information was included and pseudonyms were used to protect participant identities.
Lack of Family Consistency All participants described having a lack of secure, consistent primary care givers/attachment figures during childhood for various reasons, including death, divorce, substance abuse, and being absent.
Other participants experienced a childhood where primary caregivers were not able to offer that consistent, caring relationship.
Not having reliable, dependable primary caregivers can cause a hopeless state and a feeling of being alone.
Because of the lack of consistency with primary caregivers, some participants looked outside the family for sources of consistency, such as peers and gangs. If family members are already gang members, they can be bred into gang membership.
Brotherhood, Sisterhood, Unity: Gang as Replacement FamilyMost of the participants said gang members became family. There was a bond and a unity. They were willing to offer protection, unity, and love to one another.
Gangs may be a form of brotherhood or sisterhood, but it comes with a hefty price, violence.
In many cases, the gang took the place of their family of origin, which was broken in some way. They were fleeing something negative, looking for an escape.
Some of the participants were searching for something to fill a void at home, such as love, respect, validation, affection, and attention.
Those who join gangs can be missing something within themselves and are seeking it elsewhere.
However, there were a few participants who felt as though the gang did not replace their family entirely, but rather were an extension of their family. They still considered the gang members part of their extended family. Also, there was one negative case.
No other OptionParticipants said gang members are bred as a product of growing up in their environment. Gangs are often their friends, family members, and in their neighborhood. They describe joining as having no other option and accepting their fate or destiny.
Gang members may feel as though joining was a normal, natural progression in life, based on the environment where they grew up.
Growing up in a poor neighborhood, the gang lifestyle can seem like a way out to a better life. The gang members become role models.
Gang membership can be a way of life. There can be an expectation for membership within families and peer groups. Police may label and assume gang membership based on the neighborhood.
Some participants felt as if their environment led them to join a gang. A large gang presence in the neighborhood can be persuasive.
Death, Jail, or Turnaround: Making the Decision to Disengage Participants talked about how they realized that they could not stay engaged in gang activity forever and decided to disengage because there was no positive outcome or future in gang membership.
Gang membership comes with the risk of violence, death, physical injury, or incarceration.
If one had difficulty with primary caregivers, it can be another blow to have a new family turn away. Some participants felt betrayed by their fellow gang members. They realized that they were not trustworthy, turning their backs on them.
Chapter 5: How and Why Do They Leave? Gang members leave gangs usually because of a combination of push and pull factors. Push factors are negative things that push one away from gang involvement, such as getting tired of the gang lifestyle, being a victim of violence, witnessing violence, aging, and gang disillusionment (Berger et al., 2016; O'Brien et al., 2013; Pyrooz et al., 2011). Disillusionment occurs when gang members feel betrayed by fellow members (Berger et al., 2011). The pull factors are positive things that pull one away from the gang lifestyle, such as stable employment and relationships, religious beliefs, moving away, and aging and maturing, which would promote marriage, having children, and family responsibilities (O'Brien et al., 2013; Pyrooz and Decker, 2011; Berger et al., 2013). As one ages and matures, having stable employment, children, and being in a stable relationship become important. These things are not priorities for youth.
Gang members leave gangs by moving out of the neighborhood, severing ties with gang associates: Leaving a gang can involve moving out of the neighborhood, severing ties with gang associates, or slowly distancing oneself, becoming involved in separate activities (Pyrooz and Decker, 2011).
Chapter 6: Prevention This chapter extends the findings and understandings of the role of attachment theory and the ways in which schools might use this understanding to inform prevention and support. This extends current scholarship, understanding, and practice. It talks about identifying risk factors for gang involvement, broken down into three areas, family, school, and social environment. It also outlines protective factors. In addition, it talks about warning signs and how to identify gang involvement in schools. The final section talks about how schools can be a safe haven, how staff can intervene and become attachment figures, and components of prevention programs. It also talks about my own clinical experience in working with youth involved in gangs as well as features interviews with gang experts and school staff.
The following came from the results of the qualitative interviews:
Having a secure base within the family home with strong attachment to parents or caregivers could have prevented gang members from joining. Having a consistent home life with parents who are at home and there to supervise are protective factors. Having different ways of making money or seeing there are opportunities outside of their neighborhood that do not involve gang life. If there is a missing attachment figure in the home, another person could step into that role, such as a school staff member, counselor, or another family member. Getting counseling when there are risk factors can be a protective factor. Almost none of the study participants had counseling.
Identifying Risk Factors Some risk factors are related to family. If there are cracks in the family foundation, including lack of parental supervision, involvement, and discipline, low family income, or gang-involved family members, gang membership chances increase (Alleyne and Wood, 2014). Other risk factors include experiencing childhood maltreatment or having a family history of criminal activity (Del Carmen et al., 2009).
Risk factors are also related to school, including learning disabilities, mental health concerns, or weak school attachment or investment to school. These factors can lead students to not care about school, which leads to poor school performance, which is related to gang involvement (Alleyne and Wood, 2014; Del Carmen et al., 2009; Gover, 2002; McNulty and Bellair, 2003; O'Brien et al., 2013).
The social environment can also play a role as a risk factor. Residing in a neighborhood with a gang presence could increase chances of gang involvement (Alleyne and Wood, 2014; Del Carmen, et al., 2009; O'Brien et al., 2013). Gang presence can influence youth, especially if friends have joined. Wanting protection, friendship, and a sense of belonging are pull factors for gang involvement (O'Brien et al., 2013). Having friends engaged in criminal activity or gangs, living in disadvantaged communities, and desiring ways to earn money are all related to gang involvement (Alleyne and Wood, 2014; O'Brien et al., 2013). Poverty is a significant life stressor. If one lives in a poor are, there will be fewer resources and a higher crime rate (Santiago et al., 2011).
Identifying Protective Factors Having a high level of parental supervision and strong family attachment (McNulty & Bellair, 2003; O'Brien, Daffern, Chu & Thomas, 2013; Gover, 2002; Walters, 2016), having both parental and nonparental role models, (Higgins, Wesley & Mahoney, 2010; McNulty & Bellair, 2003; Walters, 2016), and positive relationships with the same sex parent (Walters, 2016) are all protective factors. Protective factors include a high investment and attachment to school and staff, teaching youth coping and social skills (Gover, 2002; McNulty & Bellair, 2003; O'Brien et al, 2013; Walters, 2016). Positive peer influences, (Gover, 2002; McNulty & Bellair, 2003; O'Brien et al, 2013; Walters, 2016) and community attachment and involvement (Higgins et al, 2010; McNulty & Bellair, 2003; Walters, 2016) are all protective factors.
Identifying Warning SignsThere are many warning signs including: colors, clothing/accessories, graffiti, tattoos, change in behavior, new friends, weapons, drug usage, money, social media, music and movies, safety worry, fighting/injuries. All of these will be explored in depth.
Building a Safe Haven Providing a safe environment without fear is the most important thing that schools can do to prevent gang involvement (Gottfredson, 2013). Many principals do not admit there are gang problems in their schools (Gottfredson, 2013). Therefore, this may get in the way of prevention programs being in place. Gang problems are more likely to occur in areas that have poverty and experience social disorganization (Gottfredson, 2013). Unemployment rates are usually high and families have fallen on hard economic times with many children living with single mothers (Gottfredson, 2013). Gangs can be like a social problem, where youth may feel that they need to participate to keep them safe from harm (Gottfredson, 2013). Prevention programs in schools should address things such as impulse control, lack of attachment to school, and rules (Gottfredson, 2013). Helping youth to resist peer pressure and rewarding involvement in school are also key (Gottfredson, 2013).
Strategies for Youth: Connecting Cops & Kids (2019) reported that 71% of public schools have school resource officers (SROS). The federal and state governments spent about $2 billion to place these armed law enforcement officers into school buildings. There has not been evidence that says that these SROs are helpful in decreasing tragedies, but they do increase students getting arrested for small crimes and students of color and those with disabilities are treated more harshly than others. There also needs to be regulation so that SROs are not pushing children into the juvenile justice system needlessly. Therefore there has been a recent push to have SROs receive training in half the states.
Staff become attachment figures/building a secure base within the school. This is a suggestion coming from my qualitative research. If there is a missing attachment figure at home, staff members, especially school counselors, can step in and help to become those missing attachment figures. The school building can become a safe haven in a world that does not feel safe for these students. A high investment in school is a protective factor against gang involvement (McNulty & Bellair, 2003; O'Brien et al, 2013; Walters, 2016). Create positive peer interactions for youth. Students can join activities during and after school like sports and clubs to keep them involved with a higher attachment to school and off the streets. Having positive role models for youth is a key protective factor in dissuading gang involvement (Higgins et al, 2010; McNulty & Bellair, 2003; Walters, 2016). Schools have an opportunity to set up positive role models for at-risk students, such as positive peers, staff members, or a mentoring program, such as Big Brothers Big Sisters. Gang prevention should be tailored to each school. It is important to assess the school's needs first before deciding on individual needs (Gottfredson, 2013). It is important to provide education to staff, parents, and students on the danger and signs of gangs.
School staff should forge relationships with parents and caregivers, getting them involved. Close parental supervision and having consistent and involved family are protective factors against gang involvement (McNulty & Bellair, 2003; O'Brien et al, 2013; Walters, 2016). Get counselors involved. They can assess for risk and either provide mental health counseling or refer to outside counseling resources. Research shows that programs with a cognitive behavioral component are most effective at reducing problem behaviors (Gottfredson, 2013). Create a strong antibullying and harassment program in school. Staff members need to be able to recognize risk factors, signs of gangs, and address and eliminate problem behaviors by enforcing rules and consequences consistently (Gottfredson, 2013). It is important that youth see law enforcement in a positive light and form positive relationships early on in their early elementary school years. Schools and law enforcement should also collaborate and share information, such as local gang trends and activity. Attachment and involvement to community can assist in preventing gang involvement (Higgins et al, 2010; McNulty & Bellair, 2003; Walters, 2016). Form a collaboration with community agencies and faith-based programs, like churches, to create a strong sense of belonging in the community. Teaching youth coping and social skills can aid in gang prevention (McNulty & Bellair, 2003; O'Brien et al, 2013; Walters, 2016). Teaching anger management, conflict resolution, emotional awareness, social skills, and how to say no to peer pressure are all important prevention skills.
Trauma-Informed PracticeHarden, Kenemore, Mann, Edwards, List, and Martinson (2014) describes how trauma-informed practice tries to understand the impact of violence exposure on survivors of trauma. There are programs that train therapists strategies and interventions with violence survivors and help them understand how they are impacted by traumatic events (Harden et al, 2014). National Childhood Traumatic Stress Network has a wealth of research and practice for childhood trauma (Harden et al, 2014). This section delves further into this topic.
School Prevention ProgramsThere are many gang prevention programs being utilized in schools today. The GREAT Program is an evidence-based gang and violence prevention program that is set in schools and run by law enforcement officers. It is run in schools where police officers come in and teach a curriculum to groups of students in a school. Components of the program include: respecting and having empathy for others, making good choices, and positive goal setting. The program utilizes skills training, group discussions, cooperative learning, and using role plays. The goal is to prevent gang membership, criminal activity, and helping students to form a positive relationship with law enforcement. Some other programs include: Safe Futures, OJJDP Comprehensive Model, Chicago Model, and GRYD in LA. These are detailed in this chapter.
