In the early 1920s most of Europe's twenty-eight states could be described as parliamentary democracies. By the end of 1938 no fewer than sixteen of these democracies had succumbed to dictatorships, while by 1941 only five remained intact. Stephen Lee examines the circumstances and leaders responsible for this dramatic turn of events. He describes the course of dictatorship in Europe before and during World War II, concentrating in particular on Russia, Italy and Germany, but also covering Spain, Portugal and the states of Central and Eastern Europe. He scrutinizes the intriguing phenomenon of dictatorship itself, and the widely differing forms it can take. Throughout this book, Stephen Lee's intention is to go beyond the spectacular and horrifying events of the era to provide explanation and balanced interpretation. He succeeds brilliantly in this, displaying to the full his ability to combine a clear, readable narrative with incisive comment. Wherever conflicting opinions exist he presents the evidence and outlines the controversy so that readers can reach their own conclusions in an informed way.