FOREWORD by Dr Lotay Tshering, Prime Minister, Royal Government of Bhutan
PREFACE by H.E. Lyonpo Yeshey Penjore, Honourable Minister for Agriculture and Forest, Royal Government of Bhutan
CHAPTER 1: STATE OF ENVIRONMENT IN BHUTAN
Abstract 1
Overview of Bhutan 1
Ecological Zones & Climatic Features 4
Land Use in Bhutan 5
Source: FRMD/DOFPS 10
Conservation Efforts & Protected Area Systems 10
Conservation Laws and Policies 13
Assessment of Non-Protected Areas 14
Sustainable Forest Management Plans in Non-protected Area 15
Scientific Forest Management 16
Community Forest Empowerment 16
Non-Wood Forest Product (NWFP) Management 17
Plantation and Reforestation Programs 18
Keystone species and Conservation Areas 18
Foot Notes 18
Annexure 1.1 Classification and Characteristics of Vegetation Zones in Bhutan (Grierson & Long, 1983, see 19) 22
Annexure 1.2 Description of Classification of Land Cover Class and Sub-Class in Bhutan (See 20) 25
CHAPTER 2: DRIVERS AND PRESSURE ON THE STATE OF ENVIRONMENT IN BHUTAN
Abstract 27
Land Use 31
Hydropower projects 32
Farm Roads 33
Mining and Mineral Development: 36
Land use for Agriculture 38
Waste Management 42
Figure 2.6 Waste Generated (tons/day) Dzongkhag wise 44
Fuel wood consumption 45
Fig. 2.7 Fuel Wood Supply in Bhutan 46
Timber Production 47
Forest Fires 51
Livestock Grazing 52
Air Pollution and Fossil Fuels: 54
Fig. 2.10 Fossil Fuel Consumption in Bhutan Source: Environment Accounting, 2018) 54
Demographic and Poverty factors: 61
Invasive Alien Plant Species 64
Climate change 66
Foot Notes (1- 157) 72
Annexure 2.1 List of Invasive Species in Bhutan 83
CHAPTER 3: NON-VIOLENT TECHNIQUES FOR HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Abstract 88
Contextual Framework within the ACPB: 88
Methodology: 90
Global context of HWC 90
Conflict Management Strategies: 94
Retaliatory Actions and Violent Approaches 94
Lethal Control - Counterproductive 96
From Conflict to Co-existence 98
Safe and Non-Violent Approach 99
Table 3.1 Important Elements of HWC (WWF-Bhutan, 2016; See Foot Note 78) 99
Human Wildlife Conflict Policy 100
Implementing Agencies for HWC 102
Immune-contraception for population control 109
Translocation of Problem Animals 111
Alternative Livelihoods 113
Land-Use Planning and Landscape Management 113
Mitigation Measures 114
Compensation 115
Performance payments 117
Ecotourism and Revenue Sharing 119
Community Education 120
Understanding the Conflict Profile 121
Reporting 122
Information compilation, management and use: 123
Response - measures taken to alleviate a specific or ongoing HWC incident 123
Monitoring and Evaluation - measuring the performance of HWC management 124
Human Wildlife Conflict Situation in Bhutan 124
Underlying Forces of Human Wild-life Conflicts in Bhutan 124
Human Wildlife Conflict Situation in Bhutan 125
Preventive Measures 128
Mitigation Approach in Bhutan 131
Strategic Outcomes 132
Table 3.5 Strategic Intents contributing to the Safe System (WWF-Bhutan, 2016; See Foot Note 246). 132
Effective Monitoring and Evaluation 133
Conclusion and Recommendation 134
Non-violent and Safe Approach 134
Institutional Arrangement 135
Human Wildlife Conflict Policy & Legislation 136
Coping Techniques and Mechanisms 137
Hotspot Mapping 139
Physiological Sterilization of wildlife. 139
Table 3.6 Immunocontraceptive vaccines used in different animals: 141
Innovative Research Fund for farmers 142
Economic Responses to HWC 142
Alternative livelihoods 143
Regional Transboundary Conservation 143
Foot Notes 144
Annexure 3.1 Indicators of the Strategic Outcomes of People, Wildlife, Assets and Habitat 164
CHAPTER 4: ANIMAL RIGHTS AND PROTECTION Abstract 167
Buddhist Perspectives & Conservation Biology 174
Bhutanese Buddhism and the Segue To Contemporary Animal Protection Policies 177
National Law & Buddhist Ethics 179
State Monastic Body 181
Non-governmental Organizations (NGO) 182
Tshethar (Life Saving) Practices 183
Animal Health and Rescue Centers 185
Farming Systems and Livestock Population 186
Meat Consumption in Bhutan 188
Discussion and Recommendations on Animal Protection and Animal Rights 199
Animal Protection Policy of Bhutan 199
Population control of Livestock Animals 200
Institutionalization and Implementation Arrangement 200
Monitoring & Implementation 201
Dog Population Control 202
GNH Index for Animal Kingdom 205
References (1-125) 206
Annexure 4.1 God's Country: The New Zealand Factor, by Michael Charles Tobias and Jane Gray Morrison, Dancing Star Foundation, 2010. 215
CHAPTER 5: GAP ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, RARE AND UNDER-REPRESENTED SPECIES IN BHUTAN Abstract 222
Introduction 222
Impacts of Extinction of Species 226
Taxonomic Classification - Seven Kingdoms Model 227
Objectives 227
Methodology 227
Assessment of Under-Represented Species in Kingdoms 228
Under-Represented Species in Classification of Groups 231
Records of Species Groups under Animalia Kingdom 233
Vertebrates 233
Invertebrates 235
Species Groups under Plantae Kingdom 236
Tracheophytes 237
Chromista Kingdom 238
Fungi Kingdom 239
Protista Kingdom 241
Eubacteria Kingdom 242
Archaebacteria Kingdom 243
Assessment of Threatened Species 243
Conservation Status of Fish in Bhutan 246
Threatened Endemic Plants in Bhutan 247
Under-Representation of Medicinal Plants 276
Documentation of Agro-Biodiversity 277
Community Participation and Citizen Science 277
Discussion and Recommendations 278
Foot Notes 280
Annexure 5.1 List of Threatened Species of Plants (IUCN Status-2019) 284
Annexure 5.2 List of Threatened Species of Mammals in Bhutan (IUCN Status-2019) 285
Annexure 5.3 List of Threatened Species of Birds in Bhutan (IUCN) - 2019 NBC 287
Annexure 5.4 List of Threatened Fish Species 289
Annexure 5.5: List of Threatened Amphibian and Reptile Species 290
Annexure 5.6 Monotypic Species of Seed Plants under each Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species (Source Flora of Bhutan, Volume 1, 2 & 3) 290
CHAPTER 6: CONSERVATION STRATEGY OF THREATENED AND UNDER-REPRESENTED MAMMALIAN SPECIES
Introduction. 293
Landscape Conservation Approach 293
Mammalian species 294
Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) Conservation 294
Recommendations for Conservation Strategies 295
Pygmy Hog (Sus salvanius) Conservation 296
Recommendation for Conservation Strategy of Pygmy Hog (Sus salvanius) 297
Alpine Musk Deer (Moschus Chrysogaster) and Himalayan Musk Deer (Moschus leucogaster) Conservation 297
Recommendations for Conservation Strategy of Musk Deer 299
Dhole (Cuon alpinus) Conservation Strategy 299
Recommendations for Dhole Conservation Strategy 300
Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei) Conservation Strategy 301
Recommendation for Conservation Strategy of Golden Langur 301
Conservation of Arunachal Macaque (Macaca munzala) 302
Conservation of Hispid Hare (Caprolagus hispidus) 303
Conservation of Hog Deer (Axis Porcinus) 303
Wild Water Buffalo (Bubalus arnee) Conservation 305
Discussion on Conservation of Bats 306
Foot Notes (1-131) 309
CHAPTER 7: CONSERVATION OF THREATENED AND UNDER-REPRESENTED SPECIES OF PLANTS
Introduction 322
Endemic Plant Species 323
Monotypic Plant Species 323
Discussion on Threatened Orchids 323
Critically Endangered flowering plants 325
Endangered Flowering Plants: 325
Recommendations for Conservation Strategy of Plant Species 326
Conservation of Bryophytes 328
Ecological significance of Bryophytes 329
Economic Uses of Bryophytes 329
Medicinal Use of Bryophytes 329
Bryophytes as Pollution indicators 329
Bryophytes in Science and Education 330
Threats to Bryophytes 330
Lesser Known Timber Species in Bhutan 331
Foot Notes 332
Annexure 7.1 Most commonly used timber species (Source: FRMD/DoFPS) 337
Annexure 7.2 High value timber with less utilization (Source: FRMD/DoFPS) 338
CHAPTER 8: CONSERVATION OF THREATENED BIRDS, REPTILES, FISHES AND PARASITES
Birds Conservation 339
Conservation of White Bellied Heron (Ardea insignis) 340
Conservation of Vultures 341
Discussion on Conservation of White Winged Duck 342
Conservation Strategy of Baer's Pochard 342
Conservation Strategy of Eagles 343
Recommendations for Conservation Strategy of Threatened Birds 343
Conservation of Turtles 344
Importance of Turtle Conservation 345
Conservation Strategies 346
Conservation of Threatened Fish Species 346
CHAPTER 9: CONSERVATION FOR FOOD SECURITY AND UNDER-REPRESENTED MICROBES
Abstract 362
Conservation of Crop Genetic Resources 362
Agro-Biodiversity Gene Banks 363
Preservation under Permafrost Conditions 363
Microbial Conservation Strategies 364
FOOT NOTES