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Craig Stanford is a professor of anthropology and biological sciences at the University of Southern California, where he also directs the Jane Goodall Research Center. He has conducted field research on primate behavior in south Asia, Latin America, and East Africa. He is well known for his long-term studies of meat-eating among wild chimpanzees in Gombe, Tanzania, and of the relationship between mountain gorillas and chimpanzees in the Impenetrable Forest of Uganda. He has authored or coauthored more than 120 scientific publications. Craig has received USC's highest teaching awards for his introductory Biological Anthropology course. In addition, he has published eleven books on primate behavior and human origins, including Significant Others (2001) and Upright (2003). He and his wife, Erin Moore, a cultural anthropologist at USC, live in South Pasadena, California, and have three children.
John Allen is a research scientist in the Dornsife Cognitive Neuroscience Imaging Center and the Brain and Creativity Institute at the University of Southern California, where he is also an adjunct research associate professor in the Department of Anthropology. Previously, he was a neuroscience researcher at the University of Iowa College of Medicine and a faculty member in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Auckland, New Zealand, for several years. His primary research interests are the evolution of the human brain and behavior, and behavioral disease. He also has research experience in molecular genetics, nutritional anthropology, and the history of anthropology. He has conducted fieldwork in Japan, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Palau. He has received university awards for teaching introductory courses in biological anthropology both as a graduate student instructor at the University of California and as a faculty member at the University of Auckland. John and his wife, Stephanie Sheffield, have two sons, Reid and Perry.
Susan Anton is an associate professor in the Center for the Study of Human Origins, Department of Anthropology at New York University, where she also directs the M.A. program in Human Skeletal Biology. She is joint editor of the Journal of Human Evolution. Her field research concerns the evolution of genus Homo in Indonesia and human impact on island ecosystems in the South Pacific. She is best known for her work on H. erectus in Kenya and Indonesia. She received awards for teaching as a graduate student instructor of introductory physical anthropology and anatomy at the University of California and was Teacher of the Year while at the University of Florida. She has been twice elected to Who's Who Among America's Teachers. Susan and her husband, Carl Swisher, a geochronologist, raise Anatolian shepherd dogs.
Preface ix
About the Authors xiii
Part I Foundations
Chapter 1 Introduction: What Is Biological Anthropology? 1
Anthropology and Its Other Subfields 3
BOX 1.1 Foundation: The Subfields of Anthropology 4
The Scope of Biological Anthropology 6
Paleoanthropology 6
Skeletal Biology and Human Osteology 7
Paleopathology and Bioarchaeology 8
Forensic Anthropology 8
Primatology 9
Human Biology 9
The Roots of Modern Biological Anthropology 10
Visual Summary 12
Chapter 2 Origins of Evolutionary Thought 13
What Is Science? 15
The Early Thinkers 16
The Roots of Modern Science 16
Linnaeus and the Natural Scheme of Life 17
The Road to the Darwinian Revolution 17
The Uniformitarians: Hutton and Lyell 18
The Darwinian Revolution 19
The Galapagos 20
Refining the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection 22
BOX 2.1 Darwin versus Wallace? 25
The Science and Creationism Question 27
BOX 2.2 What Is Intelligent Design? 28
Visual Summary 30
Part II Mechanisms of Evolution
Chapter 3 Genetics: Cells and Molecules 31
The Study of Genetics 33
BOX 3.1 Cloning Controversies 34
The Cell 35
Cell Anatomy 36
DNA Structure and Function 37
DNA Structure I: The Molecular Level 37
DNA Function I: Replication 39
DNA Function II: Protein Synthesis 40
DNA Structure II: Chromosomes and Cell Division 45
Molecular Tools for Bioanthropological Research 50
Indirect and Direct Research Methods 50
PCR, Mitochondrial DNA, and Ancient DNA 51
Innovations: DNA Barcoding 54
Visual Summary 56
Chapter 4 Genetics: From Genotype to Phenotype 58
From Genotype to Phenotype 60
The ABO Blood Type System 61
Obesity: A Complex Interaction 61
Mendelian Genetics 62
Mendel's Postulates 64
Linkage and Crossing Over 67
Mutation 67
Point Mutation and Sickle Cell Disease 67
Trinucleotide Repeat Diseases 69
Mutations: Bad, Neutral, and Good 69
X-Linked Disorders 70
Mendelian Genetics in Humans 72
Genetics beyond Mendel 72
BOX 4.1 State Fair Mendelism and the Eugenics Movement 73
Polygenic Traits, the Phenotype, and the Environment 75
Innovations: A New Genetic Era 76
Heritability and IQ Test Score Performance 77
Phenylketonuria: Illustrating Mendelian and Post-Mendelian Concepts 77
Genes and Environments 78
Visual Summary 79
Chapter 5 The Forces of Evolution and the Formation of Species 81
How Evolution Works 83
Where Does Variation Come From? 83
How Natural Selection Works 83
Other Evolutionary Processes 85
Classification and Evolution 89
Taxonomy and Speciation 89
What Is a Species? 92
Species Concepts 92
BOX 5.1 What's in a Name? Species Concepts, Genetics, and Conservation 93
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms 94
How Species Are Formed 94
The Tempo of Speciation 96
Adaptation 96
Is Everything Adaptive? 97
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium 98
Levels of Selection 99
Inclusive Fitness 100
Visual Summary 101
Chapter 6 Human Variation: Evolution, Adaptation, and Adaptability 102
Human Variation at the Individual and Group Levels 104
What Is a Population? 105
Historical Perspectives on Human Variation 106
Recording Human Variation in Past Civilizations 106
The Monogenism-Polygenism Debate 107
Race and Racism in the Twentieth Century 109
Changing Attitudes Toward Race in Anthropology 110
Deconstructing Racial Features 110
Population Genetics 112
Polymorphisms: ABO and Other Blood Type Systems 112
Gene Flow and Protein Polymorphisms 116
Polymorphisms and Phylogenetic Studies 117
Polymorphisms and Natural Selection in Human Populations 119
The Evolution of Lactose Tolerance 119
Balanced Polymorphisms: Sickle Cell and Other Conditions 121
Adaptation and Adaptability 125
Levels of Adaptability 125
BOX 6.1 Technology and Extreme Environments 126
Heat and Cold 126
Body Size and Shape 127
Living at High Altitude 129
Skin Color 130
Visual Summary 135
Part III Primates
Chapter 7 The Primates 136
The Primate Radiation 138
The Extraordinary Diversity of Nonhuman Primates 139
What Exactly Is a Primate? 139
Anatomical Traits 141
Life History Traits 145
Behavioral Traits 146
A Guide to the Nonhuman Primates 147
The Strepsirhines 149
The Haplorhines 153
BOX 7.1 The Rarest of the Rare 154
The New World Monkeys 157
The Old World Monkeys 158
The Hominoids 161
BOX 7.2 The Impending Extinction of the Great Apes? 166
Primate Ecology 169
Diet 169
You Are What You Eat: Dietary and Digestive Strategies 171
Diet and Feeding Competition 171
Primate Communities 173
Visual Summary 174
Chapter 8 Primate Behavior 175
Studying Primates 177
The Evolution of Primate Social Behavior 178
Social Behavior and Reproductive Asymmetry 179
Male Reproductive Strategies 180
Female Reproductive Strategies 181
Why Are Nonhuman Primates Social? 183
The Paradox of Sociality 183
Innovations: Culture in Nonhuman Primates 184
Types of Nonhuman Primate Societies 187
BOX 8.1 The Infanticide Wars 190
BOX 8.2 Are Chimpanzees from Mars and Bonobos from Venus? 192
Visual Summary 185
Part IV The Fossil Record
Chapter 9 Geology and Primate Origins 196
How to Become a Fossil 198
The Importance of Context 199
Stratigraphy 199
The Geologic Time Scale 201
How Old Is It? 204
Relative Dating Techniques 204
Calibrated Relative Dating Techniques 207
BOX 9.1 The Piltdown Hoax 208
Chronometric Dating Techniques 208
Innovations: Time in a Bottle 212
The Earth in the Cenozoic 214
Continents and Landmasses 214
The Environment in the Cenozoic 215
Climate Change and Early Primate Evolution 217
Changes in the Paleocene: The Origin of Primates 218
Why Primates? 219
Early Primates of the Eocene 219
Selective Pressures Driving the Strepsirhine-Haplorhine Split 221
Climate Change and the Origin of Monkeys and Apes 221
The First Monkeys 222
New World Monkeys 223
Old World Monkeys 224
What Favored the Origin of Anthropoids? 225
The Earliest Apes 226
Selection Pressures and the Divergence of Monkeys and Apes 228
The Monkey's Tale: Primate Diversity in the Miocene 228
Molecular Evolution in Primates 229
A Primate Molecular Phylogeny 232
Visual Summary 234
Chapter 10 Early Hominids and Australopithecus 236
Becoming a Biped 238
Anatomical Changes 239
Constructing the Bipedal Body Plan 242
Why Bipeds? 242
The Transition to Human Behavior 245
What Made Humans Human? 245
Will You Know a Hominid When You See One? 245
BOX 10.1 A Rose by Any Other Name: Hominids versus Hominins 246
The First Hominids? 247
Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7.0-6.0 mya) 249
Orrorin tugenensis (6.0 mya) 249
Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4 mya) and Ardipithecus kadabba (5.8-5.2 mya) 250
Australopithecus and Kin 251
Australopithecus anamensis (4.2-3.9 mya) 254
Australopithecus afarensis (3.9-2.9 mya) 254
East and West African Hominids from 3.5 to 2.5 mya 256
Australopithecus africanus (3.5-<2.0 mya) 257
The Robust Australopithecines (or Paranthropines) 260
Innovations: Dikika and Development 262
Understanding the Australopithecine Radiation 265
Cohabitation 265
Tools and Intelligence 266
Ancestors and Descendants 266
Visual Summary 269
Chapter 11 Rise of the Genus Homo 271
Climate and the Evolution of Homo in the Pliocene and Pleistocene 272
Defining the Genus Homo 273
Earliest Genus Homo 273
Early Tool Use 274
Hunting and Scavenging 276
Who Was Homo erectus? 277
Anatomical Features 277
Innovations: What's Size Got to Do with It? 282
Homo erectus versus Homo ergaster 284
Homo erectus around the World 284
African Origins 285
The First African Diaspora: Republic of Georgia 285
Dispersal into East Asia 288
The Status of Homo erectus in Europe 292
The Lifeways of Homo erectus 293
Homo erectus and the Early Stone Age 293
A Higher-Quality Diet: Homo erectus Subsistence 295
Homo erectus Life History 296
Homo erectus Leaves Africa 296
Visual Summary 298
Chapter 12 Archaic Homo sapiens and Neandertals 299
Hominid Evolution in the Mid- to Late Pleistocene 301
Defining Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens 301
Archaic Homo sapiens 302
European Archaic Homo sapiens 302
African Archaic Homo sapiens 304
Asian Archaic Homo sapiens 305
Behavior of Archaic Homo sapiens 305
Stone Tools 306
Tools from Organic Materials 307
Big-Game Hunting 307
Fire, Campsites, and Home Sites 308
The Neandertals 309
Geographic and Temporal Distribution 309
History of Neandertal Discovery 309
BOX 12.1 Neandertal Image Makeovers 311
Neandertal Anatomy and DNA: Built for the Cold 312
Growing up Neandertal 316
Health and Disease 317
Innovations: Neandertal Genes 318
Neandertal Behavior 320
Material Culture 320
Coping with Cold 322
Hunting, Subsistence, and Cannibalism 322
Burials 323
Ritual and Symbolic Behavior 325
Phylogenetic and Taxonomic Issues: An Overview 325
Visual Summary 330
Chapter 13 The Origin, Dispersal, and Bioarchaeology of Homo sapiens 331
The Emergence of Modern Humans 333
Models of Modern Human Origins 334
Replacement and Multiregional Models 334
Predictions of the Two Models 335
Anatomy and Distribution of Early Humans 335
Africa 335
Near East 337
Europe 337
Asia and Southeast Asia 338
Australia 339
Archaeology of Modern Human Origins 340
BOX 13.1 The Little People of Flores 341
Stone and Other Tools 342
Subsistence 343
Symbolism, Burial, and Art 344
Molecular Genetics and Human Origins 346
Mitochondrial DNA 346
The Y Chromosome 347
MRCAs for Nuclear Genes 348
Ancient DNA 348
Interpreting Models of Human Origins 349
Paleontology and Archaeology 349
Molecular Genetics 350
Bioarchaeology after the Origin of Modern Humans 352
Settlement of the New World and Pacific Islands 352
Biological Changes at the Origins of Agriculture and Shifts to Sedentism 354
Physical and Cultural Consequences of Colonization 355
Visual Summary 357
Part V Biology and Behavior of Modern Humans
Chapter 14 Evolution of Brain and Behavior 359
Overview of the Brain 361
Issues in Hominid Brain Evolution 363
Humans Have "Large" Brains 363
Brain Size and the Fossil Record 365
Brain Reorganization 367
BOX 14.1 The Ten-Percent Myth: Evolution and Energy 368
Language: Biology and Evolution 369
Language in the Brain 369
Language in the Throat 370
Language Ability and the Fossil Record 371
Innovations: Music, the Brain, and Evolution 372
Scenarios of Language Evolution 374
The Evolution of Human Behavior 374
The Evolution of Human Behavior: Four Approaches 375
Traditional Lives in Evolutionary Ecological Perspective 376
Wealth, Reproductive Success, and Survival 376
Physiology and Ecology 377
Hunting, Gathering, and the Sexual Division of Labor 379
Sexual Selection and Human Behavior 380
Risk-Taking Behavior 381
Inbreeding Avoidance and Incest Taboos 382
Visual Summary 384
Chapter 15 Biomedical and Forensic Anthropology 385
Biomedical Anthropology and the Biocultural Perspective 387
Birth, Growth, and Aging 388
Human Childbirth 388
Patterns of Human Growth 389
Stages of Human Growth 390
The Secular Trend in Growth 392
Menarche and Menopause 393
Aging 394
Infectious Disease and Biocultural Evolution 396
Human Behavior and the Spread of Infectious Disease 396
Infectious Disease and the Evolutionary Arms Race 398
Diet and Disease 400
The Paleolithic Diet 400
Agriculture and Nutritional Deficiency 400
Agriculture and Abundance: Thrifty and Nonthrifty Genotypes 402
Forensic Anthropology, Life, Death, and the Skeleton 403
Field Recovery and Laboratory Processing 403
The Biological Profile 404
Age at Death 404
Sex 407
Ancestry 409
Height and Weight 409
Innovations: Ancestry Genetics 410
Premortem Injury and Disease 412
Perimortem and Postmortem Trauma 412
Identification and Forensic Anthropology 413
Time Since Death 414
Antemortem Records, Facial Reconstruction, and Positive IDs 415
Applications of Forensic Anthropology 415
Mass Fatalities 416
War Dead 416
War Crimes and Genocide 417
Epilogue 418
Visual Summary 419
Appendix A Primate and Human Comparative Anatomy 421
Appendix B The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium 426
Appendix C Metric-Imperial Conversions 428
Glossary 429
Bibliography 437
Credits 456
Index 458