Preface xiii
1 Introduction to Energy Storage Systems 1
Rajender Kumar Beniwal, Sandeep Dhundhara and Amarjit Kalra
1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.1 Basic Components of Energy Storage Systems 5
1.2 Types of Energy Storage Systems 5
1.2.1 Chemical Energy Storage System 6
1.2.2 Mechanical Energy Storage System 8
1.2.3 Electromagnetic Energy Storage System 11
1.2.4 Electrostatic Energy Storage System 12
1.2.5 Electrochemical Energy Storage System 14
1.2.6 Thermal Energy Storage System 18
1.3 Terminology Used in ESS 19
1.4 Applications of ESS 21
1.5 Comparative Analysis of Cost and Technical Parameters of ESSs 23
1.6 Analysis of Energy Storage Techniques 23
1.7 Conclusion 28
References 28
2 Storage Technology Perspective in Modern Power System 33
Reinaldo Padilha Franca, Ana Carolina Borges Monteiro, Rangel Arthur and Yuzo Iano
2.1 Introduction 34
2.2 Significance of Storage Technologies in Renewable Integration 35
2.3 Overview of Current Developments in Electrical Energy Storage Technologies 38
2.4 Commercial Aspects of Energy Storage Technologies 40
2.5 Reducing the Costs of Storage Systems 41
2.6 Energy Storage Economics - A View Through Current Scenario 42
2.7 Implications for Researchers, Practitioners, and Policymakers 43
2.8 Regulatory Considerations - A Need for Reform 44
2.9 Discussion 46
2.10 Conclusions 47
2.11 Trends and Technological Modernizations - A Look Into What the Future Might Bring 49
References 50
3 Virtual Inertia Provision Through Energy Storage Technologies 59
Shreya Mahajan and Yajvender Pal Verma
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 Virtual Inertia-Based Frequency Control 61
3.2.1 Concept of Virtual Inertia 61
3.2.2 Virtual Inertia Emulation 62
3.3 Impact of Low System Inertia on Power System Voltage and Operation & Control Due to Large Share of Renewables 63
3.4 Control Methods for Inertia Emulation in RES-Based Power Systems 65
3.4.1 Control Methods Without ESS for Frequency Control 66
3.4.2 Control Methods with ESS for Frequency Control 67
3.4.2.1 Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) 69
3.4.2.2 Super Capacitors and Ultra-Capacitors 70
3.4.2.3 Flywheel Energy Storage System (FESS) 70
3.4.2.4 Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS) 71
3.5 Challenges 73
References 73
4 Energy Storage Systems for Electric Vehicles 79
M. Nandhini Gayathri
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Energy Storage Systems for Electric Vehicle 82
4.3 Types of Electric Vehicles 82
4.3.1 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) 85
4.3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) 86
4.3.3 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) 87
4.4 Review of Energy Storage Systems for Electric Vehicle Applications 88
4.4.1 Key Attributes of Battery Technologies 88
4.4.2 Widely Used Battery Technologies 88
4.4.3 Alternate Energy Storage Solutions 92
4.5 Electric Vehicle Charging Schemes 93
4.6 Issues and Challenges of ESSs in EV Applications 94
4.7 Recent Advancements in the Storage Technologies of EVs 94
4.8 Factors, Challenges and Problems in Sustainable Electric Vehicle 96
4.9 Conclusions and Recommendations 97
References 97
5 Fast-Acting Electrical Energy Storage Systems for Frequency Regulation 10
Mandeep Sharma, Sandeep Dhundhara, Yogendra Arya and Maninder Kaur
5.1 Introduction 106
5.1.1 Significance of Fast-Acting Electrical Energy Storage (EES) System in Frequency Regulation 106
5.1.2 Capacitive Energy Storage (CES) 107
5.1.2.1 Basic Configuration of CES 109
5.1.2.2 CES Control Logic 112
5.1.3 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) 113
5.1.3.1 Constructional and Working Details of SMES 113
5.1.3.2 Basic Configuration of SMES 114
5.1.3.3 SMES Block Diagram Presentation 115
5.1.3.4 Benefits Over Other Energy Storage Methods 116
5.1.4 Advantages of CES Over SMES 117
5.2 Case Study to Investigate the Impact of CES and SMES in Modern Power System 118
5.2.1 Literature Review 118
5.2.2 Modeling of the System Under Study 121
5.2.3 Control Approach 121
5.3 Impact of Fast-Acting EES Systems on the Frequency Regulation Services of Modern Power Systems 124
5.3.1 System Model-1 124
5.3.2 System Model-2 128
5.4 Conclusion 137
Appendix A 137
References 138
6 Solid-Oxide Fuel Cell and Its Control 143
Preeti Gupta, Vivek Pahwa and Yajvender Pal Verma
Abbreviations 144
Symbols and Molecular Formulae 144
Nomenclature 145
6.1 Introduction 145
6.2 Fuel Cells 147
6.2.1 Different Types of Fuel Cells 148
6.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 148
6.2.3 Applications in Modern Power System 150
6.3 Solid-Oxide Fuel Cell 150
6.3.1 Mathematical Modeling 152
6.3.2 Linearization 153
6.3.3 Control Schemes for Solid-Oxide Fuel Cell Based Power System 155
6.3.3.1 Constant Voltage Control 156
6.3.3.2 Constant Fuel Utilization Control 156
6.4 Illustration of a Case Study on Control of Grid-Connected SOFC 160
6.5 Recent Trend in Fuel Cell Technologies 165
6.5.1 Techno-Economic Comparison 166
6.5.2 Market and Policy Barriers 168
6.6 Summary and Future Scope 169
Acknowledgement 170
References 170
7 Lithium-Ion vs. Redox Flow Batteries - A Techno-Economic Comparative Analysis for Isolated Microgrid System 177
Maninder Kaur, Sandeep Dhundhara, Sanchita Chauhan and Mandeep Sharma
7.1 Introduction to Battery Energy Storage System 178
7.1.1 Lithium-Ion Battery 178
7.1.2 Redox Flow Batteries 182
7.2 Role of Battery Energy Storage System in Microgrids 186
7.3 Case Study to Investigate the Impact of Li-Ion and VRFB Energy Storage System in Microgrid System 188
7.3.1 System Modelling 188
7.3.2 Evaluation Criteria for a Microgrid System 191
7.3.3 Load and Resource Assessment 191
7.4 Results and Discussion 192
7.5 Conclusion 194
References 195
8 Role of Energy Storage Systems in the Micro-Grid Operation in Presence of Intermittent Renewable Energy Sources and Load Growth 199
V V S N Murty, Ashwani Kumar and M. Nageswara Rao
8.1 Introduction 200
8.1.1 Techniques and Classification of Energy Storage Technologies Used in Hybrid AC/DC Micro-Grids 201
8.1.2 Applications and Benefits of Energy Storage Systems in the Microgrid System 202
8.1.2.1 Applications and Benefits of BESS in Micro-Grid 203
8.1.3 Importance of Appropriate Configuration of Energy Storage System in Micro-Grid 205
8.1.3.1 Decentralized Control 206
8.1.3.2 Centralized Control 206
8.1.3.3 Coordinated Control 207
8.1.3.4 Topology of BESS and PCS 208
8.1.3.5 Battery Management System 208
8.2 Concept of Micro-Grid Energy Management 209
8.2.1 Concept of Micro-Grid 210
8.2.2 Benefits of Micro-Grids 212
8.2.3 Overview of MGEM 213
8.3 Modelling of Renewable Energy Sources and Battery Storage System 214
8.4 Uncertainty of Load Demand and Renewable Energy Sources 220
8.5 Demand Response Programs in Micro-Grid System 221
8.5.1 Modelling of Price Elasticity of Demand 221
8.5.2 Load Control in Time-Based Rate DR Program 223
8.5.3 Load Control in Incentive-Based DR Program 223
8.6 Economic Analysis of Micro-Grid System 223
8.7 Results and Discussions 224
8.7.1 Dispatch Schedule Without Demand Response 224
8.7.2 Dispatch Schedule with Demand Response 225
8.7.3 Micro-Grid Resiliency 229
8.7.4 BESS for Emergency DG Replacement 235
8.8 Conclusions 237
List of Symbols and Indices 238
References 240
9 Role of Energy Storage System in Integration of Renewable Energy Technologies in Active
Distribution Network 243
Vijay Babu Pamshetti and Shiv Pujan Singh
Nomenclature 244
9.1 Introduction 246
9.1.1 Background 246
9.1.2 Motivation and Aim 248
9.1.3 Related Work 249
9.1.4 Main Contributions 253
9.2 Active Distribution Network 253
9.3 Uncertainties Modelling of Renewable Energy Sources and Load 254
9.3.1 Uncertainty of Photovoltaic (PV) Power Generation 254
9.3.2 Uncertainty of Wind Power Generation 255
9.3.3 Voltage Dependent Load Modelling (VDLM) 256
9.3.4 Proposed Stochastic Variable Module for Uncertainties Modelling 256
9.3.5 Modelling of Energy Storage System 258
9.3.6 Basic Concept of Conservation Voltage Reduction 259
9.3.7 Framework of Proposed Two-Stage Coordinated Optimization Model 259
9.3.8 Proposed Problem Formulation 260
9.3.8.1 Investments Constraints 262
9.3.8.2 Operational Constraints 262
9.3.9 Proposed Solution Methodology 263
9.3.10 Simulation Results and Discussions 265
9.3.10.1 Simulation Platform 265
9.3.10.2 Data and Assumptions 265
9.3.10.3 Numerical Results and Discussions 266
9.3.10.4 Effect of Voltage Profile 268
9.3.10.5 Effect of Energy Losses and Consumption 268
9.3.10.6 Effect of Energy Not Served and Carbon Emissions 272
9.3.10.7 Performance of Proposed Hybrid Optimization Solver 272
9.3.11 Conclusion 274
References 275
10 Inclusion of Energy Storage System with Renewable Energy Resources in Distribution Networks 281
Rayees Ahmad Thokar, Vipin Chandra Pandey, Nikhil Gupta, K. R. Niazi, Anil Swarnkar, Pradeep Singh and N. K. Meena
10.1 Introduction 282
10.2 Optimal Allocation of ESSs in Modern Distribution Networks 284
10.2.1 ESS Allocation (Siting and Sizing) 285
10.2.2 ESS Allocation Methods 286
10.3 Applications of ESS in Modern Distribution Networks 290
10.3.1 ESS Applications at the Generation and Distribution Side 293
10.3.2 ESS Applications at the End-Consumer Side 293
10.4 Different Types of ESS Technologies Employed for Sustainable Operation of Power Networks 294
10.5 Case Study 301
10.5.1 Proposed Two-Layer Optimization Framework and Problem Formulation 302
10.5.1.1 Upper-Layer Optimization 303
10.5.1.2 Internal-Layer Optimization 304
10.5.1.3 Problem Constraints 305
10.5.1.4 Proposed Management Strategies for BESS Deployment 307
10.5.2 Results and Discussions 308
10.5.3 Conclusions 316
10.6 Future Research and Recommendations 317
Appendix A 318
Acknowledgement 319
References 319
Index 329
