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Materials and tools. Techniques: getting started; pen practice; using a quill pen; using a reed pen; using a brush. Decorative devices: using colour; flourishes; raised gold; gilding; illumination; ornament; borders. Layout guidelines: filling the space; composition; headings and sub-headings; rules. Letter construction: terminology; understanding letter construction; Roman capitals; the development of the lower case; numerals. The alphabets: Roman alphabets; uncial and half-uncial alphabets; versal alphabets; gothic alphabets; italic alphabets; copperplate alphabets. More advanced techniques and projects: deciding on text area; using a rough sketches and thumbnails; using a centered layout; using words as images; illustrations; bookbinding.