1. Overview and History of Memory Research.
I. A Smattering of Definitions.
A. Memory.
B. Learning.
II. Metaphors for memory.
III. History of Memory Research.
A. The Ancients.
B. Important Modern Precursors.
1. Darwin and Evolution.
2. Philosophy of Mind.
C. Early memory researchers in psychology.
1. Ebbinghaus.
2. Bartlett.
D. Gestalt Psychology.
E. Behaviorism.
F. Verbal Learning.
G. Early Efforts in Neuroscience.
H. The cognitive revolution.
IV. The Modal Model of Memory.
V. Multiple memory systems.
VI. Recurring Issues.
A. Neurological Bases.
B. Memory and Emotion.
C. Multiple Memory Sources.
D. Embodied Cognition.
E. Scientific rigor and converging evidence.
VII. Summary.
VIII. Key Terms.
2. Neuroscience of Memory.
I. Neurons.
A. Neural structure.
B. Neural communication.
1. Action Potential.
2. Neurotransmitters and the Synapse.
C. Neural change in learning.
D. A blind alley.
II. Larger Structures.
A. Sub-cortical structures.
1. Hippocampus.
2. Other Structures.
B. Cortical Lobes.
1. Occipital Lobes.
2. Parietal Lobes.
3. Temporal Lobes.
4. Frontal Lobes.
III. Neurological measures.
A. Structural Measures.
1. Computer-assisted tomography.
2. Magnetic resonance Imaging.
B. Electrical Measures.
1. Electrical Stimulation.
2. Single cell recordings.
3. Event-related potentials.
C. Blood Flow Measures.
1. Positron Emission Tomography.
2. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
D. Altered Brains.
1. Case Studies and Lesions.
2. Special populations.
IV. Summary.
V. Key terms.
3. Methods and Principles.
I. Components of Memory Research.
A. What is an Experiment?
B. Other Types of Studies.
II. Aspects of Learning.
A. Intentional vs. Incidental Learning.
1. Methods.
2. Principles.
a. Levels of Processing.
b. Imagery.
c. Generation.
d. Automaticity.
B. Stimulus Characteristics.
1. Methods.
2. Principles.
a. Savings.
b. Pictures and Concreteness.
c. Emotion.
d. Frequency.
III. Assessing the Contents of Memory.
A. Recall.
1. Methods.
a. Free Recall.
b. Forced Recall.
c. Cued Recall.
d. Retrieval Plans.
2. Principles.
a. Forgetting Curve.
b. Overlearning.
c. Reminiscence and Hypermnesia.
B. Recognition.
1. Methods.
a. Old-New Recognition.
b. Correction for Guessing.
c. Forced-Choice Recognition.
C. Social Influences.
1. Collaborative Inhibition.
2. Collaborative Facilitation.
IV. Assessing Memory Structure and Process.
A. Mental Chronometry.
1. Methods.
2. Principles.
B. Cluster Analysis.
1. Methods.
a. Inter-Item Delays.
b. ARC scores.
c. Subjective Organization.
2. Principles.
V. Conscious Experience of Memory.
A. Metamemory Measures.
1. Methods.
2. Principles.
B. Implicit Memory.
1. Methods.
2. Principles.
VI. Summary.
A. Importance of Converging Evidence.
VII. Key terms.
4. Sensory and Short-Term Memory.
I. Sensory Memory.
II. Iconic Memory.
A. Span and Duration of Iconic Memory.
B. Anorthoscopic Perception.
C. Trans-Saccadic Memory.
D. Change Blindness.
III. Echoic Memory.
A. Span and Duration of Echoic Memory.
IV. Haptic Sensory Memory.
A. Span and Duration of Haptic Sensory Memory.
V. Short Term Memory.
A. Short-Term Memory Capacity.
1. Chunking.
2. Very Large Capacity.
B. Duration of Short-Term Memory.
1. Decay.
2. Interference.
C. Retrieval in Short-Term Memory.
D. Serial vs. Parallel Issues.
E. Serial Position Curves.
1. Primacy Effect.
2. Recency Effect.
3. Suffix Effect.
F. Memory for Serial Order.
1. Slot-Based Models.
2. Chaining Models.
3. Perturbation Model.
4. Inhibition Models.
5. Context-Based Models.
VI. Summary.
VII. Key terms.
5. Working Memory.
I. Baddeley and Hitch Model.
II. Phonological loop.
A. Components.
B. Phenomena of the Phonological Loop.
1. Word Length Effect.
2. Articulatory Suppression.
3. Irrelevant Speech.
4. Phonological Similarity.
5. Lexicality.
III. Visuo-spatial sketchpad.
A. Mental Images.
B. Visual Scanning.
C. Mental Rotation.
D. Boundary Extension.
E. Dynamic Memory.
1. Representational Momentum.
2. Representational Gravity.
3. Representational Friction.
4. Context.
III. Central Executive.
A. Suppression.
B. Dysexecutive Syndrome.
IV. Span Tests.
A. Sentence Span.
B. Comprehension Span.
C. Operation Span.
D. Spatial Span.
V. Working memory and complex processing.
VI. Summary.
VII Key terms.
6. Non-Declarative Memory.
I. Classical Conditioning.
A. Abstract Structure.
B. Example from Pavlov.
C. Examples with Humans.
D. Associative Structure.
E. Important Phenomenon.
1. Initial Learning.
2. Forgetting.
3. Other Situations.
4. Effects of Prior Conditioned Memories.
F. Mere Exposure Effect.
II. Instrumental Conditioning.
III. Procedural Memory.
A. Skill Acquisition.
B. Stages of Skill Acquisition.
1. Cognitive Stage.
2. Associative Stage.
3. Autonomous Stage.
C. Long-Term Working Memory.
IV. Implicit Memory.
A. Incidental Learning.
B. Indirect Tests of Memory.
1. Priming.
2. Other Verbal Tasks.
3. Some Nonverbal Tasks.
C. Data Driven and Conceptually Driven Processes.
D. Sequence Learning.
E. Memory Under Anesthesia.
V. Summary.
VI. Key terms.
7. Episodic Long-Term Memory.
I. The Contents of Episodic Memory.
A. Serial Position Effects.
B. Levels of Representation.
1. Cueing.
2. Types of Cues.
C. Context.
1. Encoding Specificity.
2. State-Dependent Memory.
3. Mood Congruent Memory.
4. Transfer Appropriate Processing.
II. Irrelevant Memories.
A. Interference.
1. Negative Transfer.
2. Proactive Interference .
3. Retroactive Interference.
4. Associative Interference .
B. Inhibition.
1. Part-Set Cuing.
2. Directed Forgetting.
3. Negative Priming.
4. Repeated Practice.
5. Summary.
III. Repetition and Practice.
A. Massed and Distributed Practice.
1. Deficient Processing.
2. Encoding Variability.
3. Dual Processes.
B. Overlearning and Permastore.
IV. Organization and Distinctiveness.
A. Organization.
B. Distinctiveness.
C. Relational and Item-Specific Processing.
1. Material Appropriate Processing.
V. Summary.
VI. Key words.
8. Memory for Space and Time.
I. Memory for Space.
A. Memory Psychophysics.
1. Uncertainty Hypothesis.
2. Re-perceptual Hypothesis.
3. Transformation Hypothesis.
4. Category Adjustment Theory.
B. Mental Maps.
1. Spatial Theories.
2. Additional mental map phenomena.
3. Temporal and hybrid theories.
4. Routes versus surveys.
5. Semantic effects.
6. Mental maps and thinking.
B. Spatial Frameworks.
II. Memory for Time.
A. Phenomena.
1. Basic Memory Effects.
2. Shifting in Time.
3. Ordering.
B. Theories.
1. Distance-based theories.
2. Location-based theories.
3. Relative Time Theories.
4. Category adjustment model of time.
III. Summary.
IV. Key Terms.
9. Semantic Memory.
I. Semantic Priming.
A. Controlled Priming.
B. Mediated Priming.
C. Semantic Interconnectivity.
D. Inhibition.
II. Concepts and Categories.
A. Properties of Categories.
B. Classical Theory of Categorization.
C. Prototype Theory.
D. Exemplar theory.
E. Explanation-Based Theory.
F. Stereotypes and Prejudice.
III. Ordered Relations.
IV. Schemas and Scripts.
A. Primary Schema Processes.
1. Selection.
2. Abstraction.
3. Interpretation.
4. Integration.
5. Reconstruction.
B. Scripts.
C. Limits on Schema Usage.
V. Problems with Semantic Memory.
A. Semantic Illusions.
B. Naive Physics.
VI. Summary.
VII. Key terms.
10. Formal Models of Long-Term Memory.
I. Simple Models of Memory.
A. Threshold Model.
B. Generate-Recognize Model.
1. Modeling Recognition and Recall.
II. Network Theories.
A. Semantic Networks.
1. Spreading Activation.
2. Priming.
B. ACT.
1. ACT network.
2. Memory Systems.
III. Global Matching Models.
A. SAM.
1. Recall.
2. Recognition.
B. MINERVA 2.
1. Echo Intensity.
2. Echo Content.
3. Specific and General Retrieval.
C. Further Work.
D. Todam And Charm.
IV. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Models.
A. Learning.
V. Dual Process Theories.
A. Atkinson and Juola.
B. Recent Views.
C. One Process or Two?
VI. Summary.
VII. Key terms.
11. Autobiographical Memory.
I. Characteristics of Autobiographical Memories.
A. Episodic or Semantic?
1. Varieties of Information.
II. Levels of Autobiographical Memory.
A. Event Specific Memories.
B. General Event Memories.
C. Lifetime Period Memories.
D. Evidence for the Hierarchy.
1. Neurological Evidence.
III. Autobiographical Memory as Life Narrative.
A. Perspectives in Autobiographical Memory.
B. Schema-Copy-Plus-Tag Model.
1. The Model.
2. Item-specific and Relational Processing.
IV. Autobiographical Memory Over Time.
A. Infantile Amnesia.
1. Psychodynamic View.
2. Neurological View.
3. Schema Organization View.
4. Language Development View.
5. Emergent Self View.
B. Reminiscence Bump.
1. Cognitive View.
2. Neurological View.
3. Identity Formation View.
4. Summary.
C. Flashbulb Memories.
1. Flashbulb Memories Are Special.
2. Flashbulb Memories Are Not So Special.
3. Criteria for Flashbulb Memories.
V. Summary.
VI. Key terms.
12. Memory and Reality.
I. Source Monitoring.
A. Types of Source Information.
B. Types of Source Monitoring.
1. Internal Source Monitoring.
2. External Source Monitoring.
3. Reality Monitoring.
C. Source Monitoring Errors.
D. Source Cueing.
E. Cryptomnesia.
F. False Fame.
G. Sleeper Effect.
II. False Memories.
A. Deese - Read -Roediger-McDermott Paradigm.
B. False Memories from Integration.
C. Implanted Memories.
D. Hypnosis and Memory.
III. False Memories Through Normal Memory Use.
A. Verbal Overshadowing.
B. Revelation Effect.
IV. Summary.
V. Key Words.
13. Memory and the Law.
I. Eyewitness Testimony.
A. Wording Effects.
B. Misleading Post-Event Information.
1. Methods.
2. Theories.
C. Arousal Influences.
1. Yerkes-Dodson Law.
2. Easterbrook Hypothesis.
3. Weapon Focus.
D. John Dean's Memory.
II. Eyewitness Confidence.
III. Cognitive Interview.
IV. Eyewitness Identification.
A. Mugshots.
B. Line-ups.
1. Unconscious Transference.
V. Juries.
A. Information Order.
B. Inadmissible Evidence.
VI. Summary.
VII. Key terms.
14. Metamemory.
I. General Properties and Theories of Metamemory.
A. Cues and Targets.
B. Cue Familiarity Hypothesis.
C. Accessibility Hypothesis.
D. Competition Hypothesis.
II. Judgments of Learning.
A. Theories of JOLs.
B. JOL cues.
C. Allocation of Study Time.
III. Feeling of Knowing.
A. Problems with FOK Judgments.
B. Other Aspects of FOK Judgments.
C. Tip-of-the-Tongue State.
1. Characteristics of TOT states.
2. Theories of TOT states.
IV. Knowing that You Don't Know.
V. Remember vs. Know.
A. The Distinction Between Remember and Know.
1. Affecting Remember but not Know.
2. Affecting Know but not Remember.
3. Affecting Remember and Know in Opposite Ways.
4. Implications for the Remember and Know Distinction.
B. Hindsight Bias.
1. The Knew-It-All-Along Effect.
2. Remembering Forgetting.
3. Avoiding the Hindsight Bias.
4. Remembering Beliefs.
VI. Prospective Memory.
A. Components of Prospective Memory.
B. Types of Prospective Memory.
VII. Neurological Basis of Metamemory.
VIII. Mnemonics.
IX. Exceptional Memory.
A. Memorists.
B. Eidetic Imagery.
X. Summary.
XI. Key terms.
15. Memory and Development.
I. Infancy.
A. Testing the Very Young.
1. Looking Method.
2. Non-Nutritive Sucking.
3. Conjugate Reinforcement.
4. Elicited Imitation.
B. Memory and Infancy.
1. Semantic Memory.
2. Episodic Memory.
II. Childhood.
A. Semantic Memory.
B. Episodic Memory.
C. Working Memory.
D. Metamemory.
III. Old Age.
A. Neurological Changes.
1. Neural Conduction Speed.
2. Declines in Frontal and Temporal Lobes.
B. Theories of Age-Related Memory Declines.
1. Speed Theory.
2. Working Memory Declines.
3. Inhibitory Declines.
4. Self-Initiated Processing.
C. Some Things Change.
1. Episodic Memory.
2. Episodic versus Schematic Information.
3. Source Monitoring.
4. Metamemory.
D. Some Things Stay the Same.
1. Semantic Memory.
2. Episodic Memory.
3. Higher-Level Memory.
IV. Summary.
V. Key Terms.
16. Amnesia.
I. Long-Term Memory Amnesia.
A. Retrograde Amnesia.
1. Characteristics of Retrograde Amnesia.
2. Case Studies of Retrograde Amnesia.
3. Electroconvulsive Therapy/Shock.
4. Transient Global Amnesia.
B. Anterograde Amnesia.
1. Medial Temporal Lobe and Hippocampus.
2. Diencephalic Anterograde Amnesia.
3. Anterograde Amnesia More Generally.
4. Other case studies of anterograde amnesia.
5. Living with Anterograde Amnesia.
C. Mixture of Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia.
II. Short-Term Memory Amnesia.
III. Psychogenic Amnesia.
A. Repression.
B. Dissociative Amnesia.
C. Dissociative Fugue.
D. Dissociative Identity Disorder.
IV. Summary.
V. Key Terms.
17. Other Memory Disorders.
I. Dementia.
A. Alzheimer's Dementia.
1. Characteristics.
2. Causes of Alzheimer's Disease.
3. Stages of Alzheimer's Disease.
4. Memory Changes.
B. Parkinson's Disease.
C. Huntington's Disease.
D. Multiple Sclerosis.
II. Memory Problems Associated with Other Conditions.
A. Confabulation.
B. Schizophrenia.
C. Depression.
D. Anxiety and Stress.
III. Loss of Specific Knowledge or Skills.
A. Semantic Amnesia.
B. Aphasia, Amusia, and Agnosia.
C. Phantom Limbs.
IV. Summary.
V. Key Terms.
Appendix: Memory Methods.
I. Signal Detection Analysis.
II. Clustering.
III. Process Dissociation.
