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1 An Introduction to the Human Body 1 1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Defined 2 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems 2 1.3 Characteristics of the Living Human Organism 5 1.4 Homeostasis 8 1.5 Basic Anatomical Terminology 13 1.6 Aging and Homeostasis 21 1.7 Medical Imaging 22 Chapter Review 25 / Critical Thinking Questions 27 / Answers to Figure Questions 27 2 The Chemical Level of Organization 28 2.1 How Matter Is Organized 29 2.2 Chemical Bonds 32 2.3 Chemical Reactions 36 2.4 Inorganic Compounds and Solutions 39 2.5 Overview of Organic Compounds 43 2.6 Carbohydrates 44 2.7 Lipids 46 2.8 Proteins 49 2.9 Nucleic Acids 54 2.10 Adenosine Triphosphate 56 Chapter Review 57 / Critical Thinking Questions 59 / Answers to Figure Questions 59 3 The Cellular Level of Organization 60 3.1 Parts of a Cell 61 3.2 The Plasma Membrane 62 3.3 Transport across the Plasma Membrane 65 3.4 Cytoplasm 74 3.5 Nucleus 85 3.6 Protein Synthesis 88 3.7 Cell Division 92 3.8 Cellular Diversity 99 3.9 Aging and Cells 99 Chapter Review 102 / Critical Thinking Questions 104 / Answers to Figure Questions 105 4 The Tissue Level of Organization 106 4.1 Types of Tissues 107 4.2 Cell Junctions 108 4.3 Comparison between Epithelial and Connective Tissues 109 4.4 Epithelial Tissue 110 4.5 Connective Tissue 122 4.6 Membranes 133 4.7 Muscular Tissue 135 4.8 Nervous Tissue 137 4.9 Excitable Cells 138 4.10 Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis 138 4.11 Aging and Tissues 139 Chapter Review 141 / Critical Thinking Questions 142 / Answers to Figure Questions 143 5 The Integumentary System 144 5.1 Structure of the Skin 145 5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin 152 5.3 Types of Skin 158 5.4 Functions of the Skin 158 5.5 Maintaining Homeostasis: Skin Wound Healing 160 5.6 Development of the Integumentary System 161 5.7 Aging and the Integumentary System 163 Chapter Review 169 / Critical Thinking Questions 170 /Answers to Figure Questions 170 6 The Skeletal System: Bone Tissue 171 6.1 Functions of Bone and the SkeletalSystem 172 6.2 Structure of Bone 172 6.3 Histology of Bone Tissue 174 6.4 Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone 177 6.5 Bone Formation 178 6.6 Fracture and Repair of Bone 185 6.7 Bone's Role in Calcium Homeostasis 188 6.8 Exercise and Bone Tissue 189 6.9 Aging and Bone Tissue 189 Chapter Review 192 / Critical Thinking Questions 193 / Answers to Figure Questions 193 7 The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton 194 7.1 Divisions of the Skeletal System 195 7.2 Types of Bones 197 7.3 Bone Surface Markings 197 7.4 Skull: An Overview 198 7.5 Cranial Bones 199 7.6 Facial Bones 208 7.7 Special Features of the Skull 210 7.8 Hyoid Bone 215 7.9 Vertebral Column 215 7.10 Vertebral Regions 218 7.11 Thorax 225 Chapter Review 231 / Critical Thinking Questions 232 / Answers to Figure Questions 232 8 The Skeletal System: The Appendicular Skeleton 234 8.1 Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle 235 8.2 Upper Limb (Extremity) 238 8.3 Pelvic (Hip) Girdle 243 8.4 False and True Pelves 245 8.5 Comparison of Female and Male Pelves 247 8.6 Lower Limb (Extremity) 247 8.7 Development of the Skeletal System 255 Chapter Review 259 9 Joints 260 9.1 Joint Classifications 261 9.2 Fibrous Joints 261 9.3 Cartilaginous Joints 263 9.4 Synovial Joints 264 9.5 Types of Movements at Synovial Joints 266 9.6 Types of Synovial Joints 271 9.7 Factors Aff ecting Contact and Range of Motion at Synovial Joints 274 9.8 Selected Joints of the Body 274 9.9 Temporomandibular Joint 277 9.10 Shoulder Joint 278 9.11 Elbow Joint 281 9.12 Hip Joint 282 9.13 Knee Joint 284 9.14 Aging and Joints 287 9.15 Arthroplasty 287 Chapter Review 291 / Critical Thinking Questions 292 / Answers to Figure Questions 292 10 Muscular Tissue 293 10.1 Overview of Muscular Tissue 294 10.2 Structure of Skeletal Muscle Tissue 295 10.3 Contraction and Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 304 10.4 Muscle Metabolism 312 10.5 Control of Muscle Tension 315 10.6 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 318 10.7 Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue 319 10.8 Cardiac Muscle Tissue 321 10.9 Smooth Muscle Tissue 321 10.10 Regeneration of Muscular Tissue 323 10.11 Development of Muscle 325 10.12 Aging and Muscular Tissue 325 Chapter Review 327 / Critical Thinking Questions 329 / Answers to Figure Questions 329 11 The Muscular System 330 11.1 How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movements 331 11.2 How Skeletal Muscles Are Named 335 11.3 Overview of the Principal Skeletal Muscles 335 11.4 Muscles of the Head That Produce Facial Expressions 339 11.5 Muscles of the Head That Move the Eyeballs (Extrinsic Eye Muscles) and Upper Eyelids 342 11.6 Muscles That Move the Mandible and Assist in Mastication and Speech 344 11.7 Muscles of the Head That Move the Tongue and Assist in Mastication and Speech 345 11.8 Muscles of the Anterior Neck That Assist in Deglutition and Speech 347 11.9 Muscles of the Neck That Move the Head 349 11.10 Muscles of the Abdomen That Protect Abdominal Viscera and Move the Vertebral Column 351 11.11 Muscles of the Thorax That Assist in Breathing 354 11.12 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor That Support the Pelvic Viscera and Function as Sphincters 357 11.13 Muscles of the Perineum 358 11.14 Muscles of the Thorax That Move the Pectoral Girdle 360 11.15 Muscles of the Thorax and Shoulder That Move the Humerus 363 11.16 Muscles of the Arm That Move the Radius and Ulna 366 11.17 Muscles of the Forearm That Move the Wrist, Hand, Thumb, and Digits 370 11.18 Muscles of the Palm That Move the Digits-Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand 375 11.19 Muscles of the Neck and Back That Move the Vertebral Column 379 11.20 Muscles of the Gluteal Region That Move the Femur 383 11.21 Muscles of the Thigh That Move the Femur, Tibia, and Fibula 389 11.22 Muscles of the Leg That Move the Foot and Toes 391 11.23 Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot That Move the Toes 396 Chapter Review 401 / Critical Thinking Questions 402 / Answers to Figure Questions 402 12 Nervous Tissue 403 12.1 Overview of the Nervous System 404 12.2 Histology of Nervous Tissue 406 12.3 Electrical Signals in Neurons: An Overview 414 12.4 Resting Membrane Potential 418 12.5 Graded Potentials 420 12.6 Action Potentials 422 12.7 Signal Transmission at Synapses 428 12.8 Neurotransmitters 435 12.9 Neural Circuits 438 12.10 Regeneration and Repair of Nervous Tissue 440 Chapter Review 442 / Critical Thinking Questions 444 / Answers to Figure Questions 444 13 The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 446 13.1 Spinal Cord Anatomy 447 13.2 Spinal Nerves 453 13.3 Cervical Plexus 456 13.4 Brachial Plexus 458 13.5 Lumbar Plexus 461 13.6 Sacral and Coccygeal Plexuses 463 13.7 Spinal Cord Physiology 465 Chapter Review 475 / Critical Thinking Questions 476 / Answers to Figure Questions 476 14 The Brain and Cranial Nerves 477 14.1 Brain Organization, Protection, and Blood Supply 478 14.2 Cerebrospinal Fluid 481 14.3 The Brainstem and Reticular Formation 486 14.4 The Cerebellum 491 14.5 The Diencephalon 493 14.6 The Cerebrum 496 14.7 Functional Organization of the Cerebral Cortex 501 14.8 Cranial Nerves: An Overview 506 14.9 Olfactory (I) Nerve 507 14.10 Optic (II) Nerve 508 14.11 Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV), and Abducens (VI) Nerves 509 14.12 Trigeminal (V) Nerve 511 14.13 Facial (VII) Nerve 512 14.14 Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Nerve 513 14.15 Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve 514 14.16 Vagus (X) Nerve 515 14.17 Accessory (XI) Nerve 516 14.18 Hypoglossal (XII) Nerve 517 14.19 Development of the Nervous System 519 14.20 Aging and the Nervous System 521 Chapter Review 523 / Critical Thinking Questions 525 / Answers to Figure Questions 525 15 The Autonomic Nervous System 526 15.1 Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems 527 15.2 Anatomy of Autonomic Motor Pathways 529 15.3 ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors 537 15.4 Physiology of the ANS 540 15.5 Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions 543 Chapter Review 546 / Critical Thinking Questions 546 / Answers to Figure Questions 547 16 Sensory, Motor, and Integrative Systems 548 16.1 Sensation 549 16.2 Somatic Sensations 552 16.3 Somatic Sensory Pathways 557 16.4 Control of Body Movement 562 16.5 Integrative Functions of the Cerebrum 569 Chapter Review 574 / Critical Thinking Questions 575 / Answers to Figure Questions 575 17 The Special Senses 576 17.1 Olfaction: Sense of Smell 577 17.2 Gustation: Sense of Taste 580 17.3 Vision: An Overview 584 17.4 Accessory Structures of the Eye 584 17.5 Anatomy of the Eyeball 587 17.6 Physiology of Vision 592 17.7 Hearing 601 17.8 Equilibrium 610 17.9 Development of the Eyes and Ears 615 17.10 Aging and the Special Senses 617 Chapter Review 619 / Critical Thinking Questions 620 / Answers to Figure Questions 620 18 The Endocrine System 622 18.1 Comparison of Control by the Nervous and Endocrine Systems 623 18.2 Endocrine Glands 623 18.3 Hormone Activity 624 18.4 Mechanisms of Hormone Action 626 18.5 Control of Hormone Secretion 629 18.6 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 630 18.7 Thyroid Gland 639 18.8 Parathyroid Glands 643 18.9 Adrenal Glands 646 18.10 Pancreatic Islets 650 18.11 Ovaries and Testes 654 18.12 Pineal Gland and Thymus 654 18.13 Other Endocrine Tissues and Organs, Eicosanoids, and Growth Factors 655 18.14 The Stress Response 656 18.15 Development of the Endocrine System 658 18.16 Aging and the Endocrine System 660 Chapter Review 665 / Critical Thinking Questions 667 / Answers to Figure Questions 667 19 The Cardiovascular System: The Blood 668 19.1 Functions and Properties of Blood 669 19.2 Formation of Blood Cells 672 19.3 Red Blood Cells 674 19.4 White Blood Cells 678 19.5 Platelets 681 19.6 Stem Cell Transplants from Bone Marrow andCord Blood 683 19.7 Hemostasis 683 19.8 Blood Groups and Blood Types 687 Chapter Review 693 / Critical Thinking Questions 694 /Answers to Figure Questions 694 20 The Cardiovascular System:The Heart 695 20.1 Anatomy of the Heart 696 20.2 Heart Valves and Circulation of Blood 703 20.3 Cardiac Muscle Tissue and the Cardiac ConductionSystem 709 20.4 The Cardiac Cycle 717 20.5 Cardiac Output 719 20.6 Exercise and the Heart 723 20.7 Help for Failing Hearts 724 20.8 Development of the Heart 726 Chapter Review 734 / Critical Thinking Questions 735 /Answers to Figure Questions 736 21 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Hemodynamics 737 21.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels 738 21.2 Capillary Exchange 746 21.3 Hemodynamics: Factors Aff ecting BloodFlow 749 21.4 Control of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow 752 21.5 Checking Circulation 756 21.6 Shock and Homeostasis 758 21.7 Circulatory Routes: Systemic Circulation 760 21.8 The Aorta and Its Branches 762 21.9 Ascending Aorta 765 21.10 The Arch of the Aorta 766 21.11 Thoracic Aorta 770 21.12 Abdominal Aorta 773 21.13 Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs 778 21.14 Veins of the Systemic Circulation 781 21.15 Veins of the Head and Neck 783 21.16 Veins of the Upper Limbs 785 21.17 Veins of the Thorax 789 21.18 Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis 791 21.19 Veins of the Lower Limbs 793 21.20 Circulatory Routes: The Hepatic PortalCirculation 796 21.21 Circulatory Routes: The PulmonaryCirculation 797 21.22 Circulatory Routes: The FetalCirculation 798 21.23 Development of Blood Vessels and Blood 801 21.24 Aging and the Cardiovascular System 802 Chapter Review 805 / Critical Thinking Questions 807 /Answers to Figure Questions 807 22 The Lymphatic Systemand Immunity 808 22.1 The Concept of Immunity 809 22.2 Overview of the Lymphatic System 809 22.3 Lymphatic Vessels and LymphCirculation 809 22.4 Lymphatic Organs and Tissues 814 22.5 Development of Lymphatic Tissues 819 22.6 Innate Immunity 820 22.7 Adaptive Immunity 825 22.8 Cell-Mediated Immunity 830 22.9 Antibody-Mediated Immunity 834 22.10 Self-Recognition and Self-Tolerance 839 22.11 Stress and Immunity 841 22.12 Aging and the ImmuneSystem 841 Chapter Review 846 / Critical Thinking Questions 848 /Answers to Figure Questions 848 23 The Respiratory System 850 23.1 Overview of the Respiratory System 851 23.2 The Upper Respiratory System 853 23.3 The Lower Respiratory System 856 23.4 Pulmonary Ventilation 869 23.5 Lung Volumes and Capacities 874 23.6 Exchange of Oxygen and CarbonDioxide 875 23.7 Transport of Oxygen and CarbonDioxide 878 23.8 Control of Breathing 884 23.9 Exercise and the RespiratorySystem 888 23.10 Development of the Respiratory System 889 23.11 Aging and the Respiratory System 890 Chapter Review 895 / Critical Thinking Questions 896 / Answers to Figure Questions 896 24 The Digestive System 898 24.1 Overview of the Digestive System 899 24.2 Layers of the GI Tract 900 24.3 Neural Innervation of the GI Tract 902 24.4 Peritoneum 903 24.5 Mouth 905 24.6 Pharynx 911 24.7 Esophagus 912 24.8 Deglutition 913 24.9 Stomach 914 24.10 Pancreas 920 24.11 Liver and Gallbladder 922 24.12 Small Intestine 927 24.13 Large Intestine 937 24.14 Phases of Digestion 943 24.15 Development of the DigestiveSystem 945 24.16 Aging and the Digestive System 945 Chapter Review 949 / Critical Thinking Questions 951 /Answers to Figure Questions 952 25 Metabolism and Nutrition 953 25.1 Metabolic Reactions 954 25.2 Energy Transfer 955 25.3 Carbohydrate Metabolism 956 25.4 Lipid Metabolism 966 25.5 Protein Metabolism 969 25.6 Key Molecules at Metabolic Crossroads 971 25.7 Metabolic Adaptations 972 25.8 Energy Balance 977 25.9 Regulation of Body Temperature 980 25.10 Nutrition 983 Chapter Review 990 / Critical Thinking Questions 991 / Answers to Figure Questions 992 26 The Urinary System 993 26.1 Overview of the Urinary System 994 26.2 Anatomy of the Kidneys 995 26.3 The Nephron 999 26.4 Overview of Renal Physiology 1005 26.5 Glomerular Filtration 1006 26.6 Tubular Reabsorption and TubularSecretion 1010 26.7 Production of Dilute and ConcentratedUrine 1018 26.8 Evaluation of Kidney Function 1022 26.9 Urine Transportation, Storage, andElimination 1024 26.10 Waste Management in Other Body Systems 1028 26.11 Development of the Urinary System 1028 26.12 Aging and the Urinary System 1030 Chapter Review 1033 / Critical Thinking Questions 1035 /Answers to Figure Questions 1035 27 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis 1036 27.1 Fluid Compartments and Fluid Homeostasis 1037 27.2 Electrolytes in Body Fluids 1042 27.3 Acid-Base Balance 1046 27.4 Aging and Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis 1051 Chapter Review 1052 / Critical Thinking Questions 1053 / Answers to Figure Questions 1054 28 The Reproductive Systems 1055 28.1 Male Reproductive System 1056 28.2 Female Reproductive System 1070 28.3 The Female Reproductive Cycle 1086 28.4 The Human Sexual Response 1091 28.5 Birth Control Methods and Abortion 1092 28.6 Development of the Reproductive Systems 1095 28.7 Aging and the Reproductive Systems 1097 Chapter Review 1103 / Critical Thinking Questions 1105 / Answers to Figure Questions 1105 29 Development and Inheritance 1107 29.1 Overview of Development 1108 29.2 The First Two Weeks of the EmbryonicPeriod 1108 29.3 The Remaining Weeks of the EmbryonicPeriod 1115 29.4 Fetal Period 1124 29.5 Teratogens 1126 29.6 Prenatal Diagnostic Tests 1127 29.7 Maternal Changes during Pregnancy 1129 29.8 Exercise and Pregnancy 1132 29.9 Labor 1132 29.10 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth 1134 29.11 The Physiology of Lactation 1135 29.12 Inheritance 1136 Chapter Review 1144 / Critical Thinking Questions 1145 / Answers to Figure Questions 1145 APPENDIX A Measurements A-1 APPENDIX B Periodic Table B-3 APPENDIX C Normal Values for Selected Blood Tests C-4 GLOSSARY / INDEX