1 A Fresh Look at Imitation in Language Learning.- 1.1 A Brief Overview of This Book.- 1.2 The New Look for Imitation.- 1.2.1 Imitation: A Complex Behavior.- 1.2.2 Imitation and Observational Learning.- 1.2.3 Child and Adult Imitation.- 1.2.4 Multiple Dimensions of Imitation.- 1.2.4.1 Time Interval Between the Model and the Imitation.- 1.2.4.2 Accuracy of the Match Between Model and Reproduction.- 1.2.5 Developmental Changes in Imitation.- 1.2.6 Biological Foundations of Imitation.- 1.2.7 Sources of Individual Differences in Imitativeness and Imitation Skill.- 1.2.8 Verbal Imitativeness and Language Acquisition Rate.- 1.2.9 Imitation and Memory.- 1.3 Specific Contributions of Children's Imitations to the Children's Language Growth.- 1.3.1 The Past.- 1.3.2 The Future.- 1.4 Specific Contributions of Adult Imitations to Children's Language Growth.- 1.5 The Need for Differentiation: Intents, Processes, and Impacts.- 1.6 A Final Word.- Acknowledgment.- References.- 2 On Linking Nonverbal Imitation, Representation, and Language Learning in the First Two Years of Life.- 2.1 Deferred Imitation: A Statement of the Problem.- 2.2 Deferred Imitation of Object-Related Acts in 1- to 2-Year-Old Infants.- 2.3 Deferred Imitation in 9-Month-Old Infants.- 2.4 Long Term Memory and Imitation: Novel Acts and Multiple Stimuli.- 2.5 Newborn Imitation of Primary Actions: Roots of Sociality, Reciprocity, and Communication.- 2.6 Connections Among Deferred Imitation, Representation, and Language Learning.- 2.6.1 Deferred Imitation as a Mechanism for Language Learning.- 2.6.2 Deferred Imitation and Piagetian Theory.- 2.7 On Characterizing the Cognitive-Linguistic Transition at 18 Months of Age: The Shift FromEmpirical RepresentationstoHypothetical Representations.- 2.7.1 Representation and Language at 18 Months.- 2.7.2 Representation, Imitation, and Symbolic Play at 18 Months.- 2.8 Summary and Conclusion.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 3 Individual and Dyadic Patterns of Imitation: Cognitive and Social Aspects.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.1.1 Nonverbal Imitation.- 3.1.2 Language Imitation.- 3.2 Method.- 3.2.1 Participants and Procedure.- 3.2.2 Transcription and Coding.- 3.3 Results and Discussion.- 3.3.1 Mothers' and Infants' Spontaneous Imitation.- 3.3.2 Vocal and Verbal Imitation.- 3.3.3 Individual and Dyadic Patterns of Vocal and Verbal Imitation.- 3.3.4 Social and Cognitive Functions of Vocal and Verbal Imitation.- 3.4 Conclusion.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 4 Imitativeness: A Trait or a Skill?.- 4.1 The Study.- 4.1.1 Data Collection.- 4.1.2 Coding.- 4.2 Results.- 4.2.1 Frequency of Imitations.- 4.2.2 Interrelations Among Types of Imitations.- 4.2.3 Imitations at 14 and 20 Months.- 4.2.4 Imitativeness and Language Development.- 4.2.5 Performance on Articulation Task.- 4.3 Conclusion.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 5 Imitation in Mother-Child Conversations: A Focus on the Mother.- 5.1 Imitation in Early Interactions.- 5.2 Method.- 5.2.1 Subjects.- 5.2.2 Procedure.- 5.2.3 Coding.- 5.2.3.1 Self-Repetition.- 5.2.3.2 Pragmatic Functions.- 5.3 Results.- 5.3.1 Prevalence of Specific Imitation Categories.- 5.3.2 Correlation Between Maternal Imitation and Child Language.- 5.3.3 Relationship Between Mother and Child Imitation.- 5.3.4 Pragmatic Function of Maternal Imitation.- 5.4 Discussion.- 5.5 Interaction and Conversation.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 6 Bidirectional Effects of Imitation and Repetition in Conversation: A Synthesis Within a Cognitive Model.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.1.1 Repetitive Sequences in Conversation.- 6.2 Language as a Cognitive Process.- 6.2.1 Development of Automatic Processing Procedures.- 6.3 Imitation and Repetition in Conversation.- 6.3.1 Sources of Imitation and Repetition: Priming and Rote.- 6.3.2 Adult Self-Repetition.- 6.3.3 Children's Imitations.- 6.4 The Developmental Nature of Children's Imitation.- 6.5 The Issue of Negative Evidence.- 6.6 Summary.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 7 Imitation: A Bootstrap for Learning to Speak?.- 7.1 The Model.- 7.1.1 Language Has a Significant Motor Component.- 7.1.2 Comprehension and Speaking: Related but Separate Processes.- 7.1.3 Development of Comprehension and Speaking.- 7.1.3.1 Development of Comprehension.- 7.1.3.2 Development of Speaking.- 7.2 Patterns of Activation During Verbal Imitation.- 7.2.1 Pattern 0: Partial Activation of the Speech-Planning Network.- 7.2.2 Pattern 1: Immediate Self-Selected Imitation.- 7.2.2.1 Pattern la: Immediate Reduced Imitation.- 7.2.3 Pattern 2: Immediate Rote Imitation.- 7.2.4 Pattern 3: Deferred Imitation and the Road to Spontaneous Speech.- 7.2.5 Pattern 4: Expanded Immediate Imitation.- 7.2.6 First Word Combinations.- 7.3 Imitation and Articulation.- 7.4 Imitation and the Production of Longer Utterances.- 7.5 Imitation and the Acquisition of Syntactic Speech.- 7.5.1 Bootstrapping Operations.- 7.5.1.1 Chaining.- 7.5.1.2 Insertion.- 7.5.1.3 Replacement/Equivalence.- 7.5.1.4 Sense of Temporal Position.- 7.5.2 Implications and Evidence.- 7.6 Articulation, Imitation Span, and Syntactic Development.- 7.7 Conclusion.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 8 Imitation and the Construction of Long Utterances.- 8.1 A Model of Language Comprehension and Production.- 8.2 Implications of the Network Model for Imitation.- 8.3 A Limited-Capacity Processing System and Implications for Imitation.- 8.4 Framework of the Study.- 8.5 Method.- 8.5.1 Subjects.- 8.5.1.1 Low-MLU Group.- 8.5.1.2 High-MLU Group.- 8.5.2 Setting.- 8.5.3 Analysis of Long Utterances.- 8.5.4 Coding.- 8.5.4.1 Similarity.- 8.5.4.2 Elapsed Time.- 8.6 Results.- 8.6.1 Are Utterances With Imitation Longer?.- 8.6.2 Imitation and Very Long Utterances.- 8.6.3 Do High-and Low-MLU Groups Use Different Amounts of Imitation.- 8.7 Discussion and Conclusion.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 9 A Biological Basis for Individual Differences in Learning to Speak?.- 9.1 Hypothesis.- 9.2 Medical History.- 9.3 Language Development.- 9.3.1 Case-History Observations.- 9.3.1.1 Early Language Development: Ages 7 Months to 2 Years.- 9.3.1.2 Age 2 to 4 Years.- 9.3.1.3 Age 5 to 7 Years.- 9.3.1.4 Visits to Germany.- 9.3.2 Speech Samples.- 9.4 Language and Cognitive Test Data.- 9.4.1 Cognitive Ability Tests.- 9.4.2 Language Tests.- 9.4.3 Memory Tests.- 9.4.3.1 Repetition of Unrelated Words.- 9.4.3.2 Digit Span.- 9.4.3.3 Paired-Associate Learning.- 9.4.3.4 Visual Memory.- 9.4.4 Summary of Test Findings.- 9.5 Reading Development.- 9.6 Developmental Dysphasia, Short-Term Verbal Memory, and Articulation Problems.- 9.7 Biological Factors in Articulation and Verbal Memory.- 9.8 Putting Together the Pieces of the Puzzle.- 9.9 Factors Affecting Learning to Speak.- 9.10 Conclusion.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 10 The Phylogenetic Processes of Verbal Language Imitation.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Levels of Genetic Analysis.- 10.3 Overview.- 10.4 Vocal Mimicry in Subhuman Species.- 10.5 Phylogenesis, Language, and Behaviorism.- 10.6 Neoteny.- 10.7 Relevant Data From the Study of Early Language Development.- 10.8 Arguments by Analogy: Imitation of Facial Expressions and Gestures.- 10.9 Critical Period, Imitation, and Language Learning.- 10.10 Conclusions.- References.- 11 Observational Learning and Language Acquisition: Principles of Learning, Systems, and Tasks.- 11.1 Learning Principles.- 11.1.1 Associative Principles.- 11.1.1.1 Attention.- 11.1.1.2 Value.- 11.1.1.3 Informativeness.- 11.1.1.4 Frequency.- 11.1.2 Operant Principles.- 11.1.2.1 Information Function of Reinforcement.- 11.1.2.2 Motivation Function of Reinforcement.- 11.1.2.3 Practice Function of Reinforcement.- 11.2 System Variables.- 11.2.1 Child Effects on Adult Behavior.- 11.2.2 Developmental Level and Forms of Stimulation.- 11.2.3 Developmental Level, Rule Knowledge, and Strategy Use.- 11.3 Task Variables.- 11.3.1 Reception and Expression.- 11.3.1.1 Variables in Reception and Expression.- 11.4 Final Discussion.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 12 The Fuzzy Set Called Imitations.- 12.1 A Set-Theoretical Conceptualization of Imitation.- 12.1.1 Perceptual Learning.- 12.1.2 Learning Through Doing.- 12.1.3 Observational Learning.- 12.1.4 The Overlapping Sets.- 12.2 Developmental and Process-Based Aspects of Imitation.- 12.2.1 Changes in the Product.- 12.2.2 Changes in the Process.- 12.3 Major Dimensions of Imitation.- 12.3.1 The Temporal Dimension.- 12.3.2 The Similarity Dimension.- 12.3.2.1 Subsets Varying in Degree of Similarity.- 12.3.2.2 Minimal Matching.- 12.3.2.3 Subsets of Imitation Seen in Interactional Perspective.- 12.4 Summary and Discussion.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 13 Implications for Language Acquisition Models of Childrens' and Parents' Variations in Imitation.- 13.1 How Extensive Are Individual Differences in Children's Imitation in the First 60 Months of Life?.- 13.2 How Do Imitations Directly Affect Immediate and Subsequent Information Processing by the Child9.- 13.3 How Do Children's Imitations Indirectly Affect the Information Available to the Child and How the Child Processes This Information?.- 13.4 How Do Differences in Temperament Between Children Relate to Imitative Differences in Children's Language Behavior').- 13.5 How Can a Process-Oriented Model Incorporate Imitative and Temperament Differences Between Children?.- 13.6 How Extensive Are Parental Individual Differences in Language Imitation When Their Children Are Developing During the First 60 Months of Life?.- 13.7 How Do Parental Differences in Various Forms of Imitation Affect the Child's Immediate and Subsequent Information Processing of Language Examples?.- 13.8 How Do Parental Variations in Imitations Affect the Child's Temperament and the Child's Own Imitative Tendencies?.- 13.9 How Can a Process-Oriented Model Incorporate Parental Differences in Various Kinds of Imitations of Utterances?.- 13.10 Conclusions.- Acknowledgments.- References.- Author Index.
