List of Contributors xiii
Series Editors Foreword xvii
Preface xix
1 The Challenge of Wear 1
I.M. Hutchings
Abstract 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Definitions and Development of Wear Studies 1
1.3 Scope and Challenges 2
1.4 Conclusions 6
References 6
2 Classification of Wear Mechanisms/Models 9
K. Kato
Abstract 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Classification of Wear Mechanisms and Wear Modes 10
2.2.1 Mechanical, Chemical and Thermal Wear 10
2.2.2 Wear Modes: Abrasive, Adhesive, Flow and Fatigue Wear 11
2.2.3 Corrosive Wear 14
2.2.4 Melt and Diffusive Wear 15
2.3 General Discussion of Wear Mechanisms and Their Models 15
2.3.1 Material Dependence 15
2.3.2 Wear Maps 16
2.3.3 Wear Mode Transition 17
2.3.4 Erosion 17
2.4 Conclusion 18
Acknowledgements 18
References 18
3 Wear of Metals: A Material Approach 21
S.K. Biswas
Abstract 21
3.1 Introduction 21
3.2 Mild Wear and Transition to Severe Wear 22
3.2.1 Mild Wear 22
3.2.2 Transition to Severe Wear 23
3.3 Strain Rate Estimates and Bulk Surface Temperature 27
3.3.1 Strain Rate Response Maps 28
3.3.2 Bulk Surface Temperature 30
3.3.3 The Phenomenological Argument 30
3.3.4 Micrographic Observations 31
3.4 Summary 34
3.4.1 Homogeneous Deformation Severe Wear 34
3.4.2 Homogeneous Deformation Mild Wear 35
3.4.3 Inhomogeneous Deformation Severe Wear 35
Acknowledgements 35
References 35
4 Boundary Lubricated Wear 37
S.M. Hsu, R.G. Munro, M.C. Shen, and R.S. Gates
Abstract 37
4.1 Introduction 37
4.2 Lubricated Wear Classification 38
4.3 Lubricated Wear Versus Dry Wear 38
4.4 Wear Measurement in Well-Lubricated Systems 42
4.5 Measurement Procedures 44
4.5.1 Run-In Process 46
4.5.2 General Performance Wear Test (GPT) 49
4.5.3 Enhanced Oxidation Wear Test (EOT) 52
4.5.4 Boundary Film Persistence Test (BFPT) 53
4.5.5 Case Study with GPT and BFPT 55
4.5.6 Boundary Film Failure Test (BFFT) 57
4.6 Wear Mechanisms Under Lubricated Conditions 61
4.7 Modeling of Lubricated Wear 65
4.7.1 Wear 65
4.7.2 Contact Area 65
4.7.3 Rheology 66
4.7.4 Film Thickness 67
4.7.5 Contact Stress 67
4.7.6 Flash Temperatures 67
4.8 Summary 68
Acknowledgments 69
References 69
5 Wear and Chemistry of Lubricants 71
A. Neville and A. Morina
5.1 Encountering Wear in Tribological Contacts 71
5.2 Lubricant Formulations Drivers for Change 73
5.3 Tribochemistry and Wear 76
5.4 Antiwear Additive Technologies 77
5.4.1 Antiwear Technologies 77
5.4.2 ZDDP Antiwear Mechanism 78
5.4.3 Interaction of ZDDP with Other Additives 83
5.4.4 New Antiwear Additive Technologies 87
5.5 Extreme Pressure Additives 88
5.6 Lubricating Non-Fe Materials 89
References 90
6 Surface Chemistry in Tribology 95
A.J. Gellman and N.D. Spencer
Abstract 95
6.1 Introduction 95
6.2 Boundary Lubrication and Oiliness Additives 95
6.2.1 Introduction 95
6.2.2 Monolayers, Multilayers and Soaps 96
6.2.3 Viscous Near-Surface Layers 102
6.2.4 Boundary Lubrication in Natural Joints 102
6.2.5 Summary 103
6.3 Zinc Dialkyldithiophosphate 103
6.3.1 Background 103
6.3.2 Analytical Approaches 104
6.3.3 Summary of Film-Formation Mechanism 104
6.3.4 Studies of Film Structure, Composition, and Thickness 105
6.4 Hard Disk Lubrication 109
6.5 Vapor-Phase Lubrication 112
6.6 Tribology of Quasicrystals 115
6.7 Conclusions 118
Acknowledgments 118
References 118
7 Tribology of Engineered Surfaces 123
K. Holmberg and A. Matthews
Abstract 123
7.1 Introduction 123
7.2 Definition of an Engineered Surface 125
7.3 Tribomechanisms of Coated Surfaces 125
7.3.1 Scales of Tribology 125
7.3.2 Macromechanical Friction and Wear 126
7.3.3 Micromechanical Mechanisms 131
7.3.4 Modelling Stresses and Strains in a Coated Microcontact 132
7.3.5 Tribochemical Mechanisms 133
7.3.6 Nanoscale Mechanisms 135
7.3.7 Debris Generation and Transfer Layers 136
7.4 Contact Types 139
7.4.1 Sliding 139
7.4.2 Abrasion 141
7.4.3 Impact 141
7.4.4 Surface Fatigue 141
7.4.5 Fretting 142
7.4.6 Chemical Dissolution 143
7.4.7 Lubricated 143
7.5 Advanced Coating Types 144
7.5.1 Hard Binary Compound Coatings 145
7.5.2 Multilayer Coatings 146
7.5.3 Nanocomposite Coatings 149
7.5.4 Hybrid and Duplex Coatings 151
7.6 Applications 152
7.7 Conclusions 154
References 155
8 Wear of Ceramics: Wear Transitions and Tribochemical Reactions 167
S. Jahanmir
Abstract 167
8.1 Introduction 168
8.2 Structure and Properties of Ceramics 168
8.2.1 Alumina Ceramics 168
8.2.2 Silicon Nitride Ceramics 169
8.2.3 Silicon Carbide Ceramics 170
8.3 Wear Transitions 170
8.3.1 Alumina 171
8.3.2 Silicon Nitride 174
8.3.3 Silicon Carbide 175
8.4 Damage Formation in Hertzian Contacts 177
8.4.1 Brittle Behavior 177
8.4.2 Quasi-Plastic Behavior 177
8.4.3 Brittleness Index 180
8.5 Transition Loads in Sliding Contacts 181
8.5.1 Quasi-Plastic Behavior 181
8.5.2 Brittle Behavior 183
8.5.3 Transition from Brittle Fracture to Quasi-Plasticity 184
8.6 Ceramics in Tribological Applications 185
Acknowledgments 187
References 187
9 Tribology of Diamond and Diamond-Like Carbon Films: An Overview 191
A. Erdemir and Ch. Donnet
Abstract 191
9.1 General Overview 192
9.2 Diamond Films 194
9.2.1 Deposition and Film Microstructure 194
9.2.2 Tribology of Diamond Films 195
9.2.3 Practical Applications 204
9.3 Diamond-like Carbon Films 207
9.3.1 Structure and Composition 207
9.3.2 Tribology of DLC Films 209
9.3.3 Synthesis of Carbon Films with Superlow-Friction and -Wear Properties 215
9.3.4 Practical Applications 217
9.4 Summary and Future Direction 219
Acknowledgments 219
References 220
10 Tribology of Polymeric Solids and Their Composites 223
B.J. Briscoe and S.K. Sinha
Abstract 223
10.1 Introduction 224
10.2 The Mechanisms of Polymer Friction 225
10.2.1 The Ploughing Term Brief Summary 225
10.2.2 The Adhesion Term Brief Summary 227
10.3 Wear 228
10.3.1 Semantics and Rationalizations 228
10.3.2 Wear Classification Based on Generic Scaling Responses 230
10.3.3 Phenomenological Classification of Wear Damages 232
10.3.4 Wear Classification Based on Polymeric Responses 240
10.4 Tribology of Polymer Composites 249
10.4.1 Soft and Lubricating Phases in a Harder Matrix 249
10.4.2 Hard and Strong Phases in a Soft Matrix 250
10.4.3 Hybrid Polymer Composites 253
10.5 Environmental and Lubrication Effects 254
10.6 A Case Study: Polymers in Hip and Knee Prosthetic Applications Ultrahigh-Molecular-Weight Poly(ethylene) (UHMWPE) 256
10.7 Concluding Remarks 260
Acknowledgements 261
References 261
11 Wear of Polymer Composites 269
K. Friedrich, Z. Zhang and P. Klein
Abstract 269
11.1 Introduction 269
11.2 Sliding Wear of Filler Reinforced Polymer Composites 270
11.2.1 Short Fibres and Internal Lubricants 270
11.2.2 PTFE Matrix Composites 272
11.2.3 Micro- and Nanoparticle Reinforcements 275
11.2.4 Integration of Traditional Fillers with Inorganic Nanoparticles 277
11.2.5 Functionally Graded Tribo-Materials 279
11.3 Artificial Neural Networks Approach for Wear Prediction 280
11.4 Fibre Orientation, Wear Mechanisms and Stress Conditions in Continuous Fibre Reinforced Composites 282
11.5 Conclusions 286
Acknowledgements 286
References 287
12 Third-Body Reality Consequences and Use of the Third-Body Concept to Solve Friction and Wear Problems 291
Y. Berthier
Abstract 291
12.1 Introduction 292
12.2 Relationship Between the Third Body and Friction 292
12.2.1 Boundary Conditions 292
12.2.2 Friction Analysis 292
12.3 Relationship Between the Third Body and Wear 293
12.3.1 Wear Laws 293
12.3.2 Material Hardness and Wear 294
12.4 What Methods Exist for Studying Friction and Wear? 294
12.4.1 The Scientific Context Surrounding Tribology 294
12.4.2 Physical Difficulties Related to Studying Contacts 295
12.4.3 So Where to from Here? 297
12.5 The Third-Body Concept 298
12.5.1 Artificial and Natural Third Bodies 298
12.5.2 Contact Without the Third Body 299
12.5.3 Types of Solid Third Body from the Mechanical Viewpoint 299
12.5.4 Action Heights of Third Bodies 300
12.6 Functions and Behaviour of the Third Body 300
12.6.1 Functions of the Third Body 300
12.6.2 Operation of Solid Third Bodies 301
12.6.3 Tribological Circuit of Third-Body Flows 302
12.6.4 Rheology of the Third Body 303
12.6.5 Scientific and Technological Consequences of the Tribological Circuit 303
12.7 Roles of the Materials in a Tribological Contact 304
12.7.1 Indirect Role of the Materials Scale of the Actual Mechanism or Mechanical Device 304
12.7.2 Direct Role of the Materials Scale of First Bodies 304
12.7.3 Optimal Direct Response of Material to the Tribological Contact 305
12.7.4 Consequences on the Approach Used for Solving Technological Problems 306
12.8 Taking into Account the Effects of the Mechanism 306
12.8.1 Choosing the Conditions to be Modelled 306
12.8.2 Technological Consequences of the Effects of the Mechanism 307
12.9 Taking into Account the Effect of the First Bodies 307
12.9.1 Local Contact Dynamics 307
12.9.2 Technological Consequences of the Effects of the First Bodies 307
12.10 Solid Natural Third-Body Modelling 308
12.10.1 Reconstruction of the Tribological Circuit 308
12.10.2 Technological Consequences of the Third Body 309
12.11 Correspondence of the Strategy Proposed to Reality 310
12.12 Control of Input Conditions 310
12.12.1 Objectives 310
12.12.2 Procedure 311
12.12.3 Precautions 311
12.13 Performing Experiments 312
12.13.1 Initial Conditions 312
12.13.2 Exterior of the Contact 313
12.13.3 Interior of the Contact 313
12.14 Conclusions 314
Acknowledgements 314
References 315
13 Basic Principles of Fretting 317
P. Kapsa, S. Fouvry and L. Vincent
Abstract 317
13.1 Introduction 317
13.2 Wear 319
13.3 Industrial Needs 320
13.4 Fretting in Assemblies 321
13.5 Fretting Processes 322
13.6 Fretting Parameters 330
13.6.1 Nature of Loading 330
13.6.2 Nature of the First Bodies 331
13.6.3 Coatings 332
13.6.4 Environment 334
13.6.5 Frequency 335
13.6.6 Temperature 335
13.7 Conclusions 336
References 337
14 Characterization and Classification of Abrasive Particles and Surfaces 339
G.W. Stachowiak, G.B. Stachowiak, D. De Pellegrin and P. Podsiadlo
Abstract 339
14.1 Introduction 340
14.2 General Descriptors of Particle Shape 340
14.3 Particle Angularity Parameters 341
14.3.1 Angularity Parameters SP and SPQ and Their Relation to Abrasive and Erosive Wear 342
14.3.2 Cone-Fit Analysis (CFA) 344
14.3.3 Sharpness Analysis 349
14.4 Particle Size Effect in Abrasive Wear 353
14.5 Sharpness of Surfaces 356
14.5.1 Characterization of Surface Sharpness by the Modified SPQ Method 356
14.5.2 Characterization of Surface Sharpness by SA 358
14.6 Classification of Abrasive Surfaces 359
14.7 Summary 364
Acknowledgements 365
References 365
15 Wear Mapping of Materials 369
S.M. Hsu and M.C. Shen
15.1 Introduction 369
15.1.1 Wear A System Perspective 370
15.1.2 Historical Material Selection Guide 370
15.2 Basic Definition of Wear 372
15.2.1 Nature of Wear 372
15.2.2 Wear Characterization 372
15.3 Wear as a System Function 375
15.4 Wear Maps as a Classification Tool to Define the System 376
15.5 Wear as an Intrinsic Material Property as Defined by Wear Maps 377
15.6 Different Kinds of Wear Maps 378
15.7 Application of Wear Maps 380
15.7.1 Material Comparison Based on Wear Maps 381
15.7.2 Wear Transition Diagrams 385
15.7.3 Material Selection Guided by Wear Maps 389
15.7.4 Wear Mechanism Identification 391
15.7.5 Wear Modeling Guide Based on Wear Maps 396
15.7.6 Wear Prediction Based on Wear Maps 405
15.8 Construction Techniques of Wear Maps 411
15.8.1 Conducting Wear Experiments 411
15.8.2 Wear Data 412
15.8.3 Data Trend Analysis 413
15.8.4 Wear Mapping 414
15.8.5 Selection of Parameters for Mapping 416
15.8.6 Assumptions in the Step-Loading Test Procedure 418
15.9 Application Map Concept and Examples 420
15.10 Future Wear Map Research 421
References 422
16 Machine Failure and Its Avoidance Tribologys Contribution to Effective Maintenance of Critical Machinery 425
B.J. Roylance
Abstract 425
16.1 Introduction 425
16.2 Maintenance Practice and Tribological Principles 426
16.2.1 Maintenance Practice A Brief Historical Overview 426
16.2.2 Tribological Principles 427
16.2.3 Tribology and Maintenance 431
16.3 Failure Diagnoses 432
16.3.1 Failure Morphology and Analysis 432
16.3.2 Dealing with Failure Two Short Case Studies 434
16.3.3 Comment 436
16.4 Condition-Based Maintenance 436
16.5 Wear and Wear Debris Analysis 440
16.5.1 Wear Modes and Associated Debris Characteristics Some Experimental Results and Their Application to RAF Early Failure Detection Centres 443
16.5.2 Summary of Laboratory Test Results 445
16.5.3 Wear Particle Classification and Application 446
16.6 Predicting the Remaining Useful Life and Evaluating the Cost Benefits 448
16.6.1 Remaining Useful Life Predictions 448
16.6.2 Evaluating the Cost Benefits 449
16.7 Closure 450
Acknowledgements 450
References 451
Index 453
