Bold sections are new to this edition:
1
what is philosophy?
THINKING PHILOSOPHICALLY ABOUT LIFE 3
1.1 Why Study Philosophy? 4
1.2 Defining Philosophy 6
Philosophy Is the Pursuit of Wisdom 6
Philosophy Begins with Wonder 8
Philosophy Is a Dynamic Process 8
The Ultimate Aim of Philosophy 9
1.3 Thinking Philosophically: Becoming a Critical Thinker 9
Thinking Philosophically What Is Your Philosophy of Life? 11
Qualities of a Critical Thinker 12
Thinking Philosophically Who Are Your Models of Critical Thinking? 12
The Process of Critical Thinking 13
Thinking Philosophically Applying the Critical Thinking Model 16
1.4 Understanding Arguments 16
The Structure of Arguments 17
Evaluating Arguments 18
Deductive Arguments 20
Inductive Arguments 21
Informal Fallacies 22
Thinking Philosophically Evaluating Arguments 24
1.5 Branches of Philosophy 24
Metaphysics 26
Thinking Philosophically Are You Willing to Question Your Beliefs? 27
Thinking Philosophically How Do You Know What Is True? 28
Epistemology 28
Ethics 28
Thinking Philosophically Do You Have a Moral Philosophy? 29
Political and Social Philosophy 30
Aesthetics 31
1.6 Reading Critically: Working with Primary Sources 31
Bertrand Russell, from The Value of Philosophy 32
Reading Critically Analyzing Russell on the Value of Philosophy 34
1.7 Making Connections: The Search for a Meaningful Life 34
Thinking Philosophically What Do You Hope to Learn? 37
Writing About Philosophy Analyzing Your Beliefs 37
visual summary 38
chapter review 38
for further reading, viewing & research 38
2
what is the philosopher's way?
SOCRATES AND THE EXAMINED LIFE 41
2.1 Socrates: A Model for Humanity 42
A Man of Greece 42
A Midwife of Ideas 45
The Wisest of Men? 46
Plato, from The Apology 47
Reading Critically Analyzing Socrates on Wisdom and Humility 48
2.2 The Socratic Method 48
Plato, from The Republic 50
Reading Critically Analyzing a Socratic Dialogue 54
2.3 Socrates' Central Concern: The Soul 55
Plato, from The Apology 55
Reading Critically Analyzing the Core Teachings of Socrates 59
2.4 The Trial and Death of Socrates 59
Plato, from The Apology 60
Thinking Philosophically Countering Personal Attacks 62
Reading Critically Analyzing Socrates on Trial 70
2.5 Making Connections: Socrates' Legacy 78
Thinking Philosophically Is Socrates Relevant Today? 79
Writing About Philosophy A Socratic Dialogue 80
visual summary 84
chapter review 84
for further reading, viewing & research 84
3
who are you?
CONSCIOUSNESS, IDENTITY, AND THE SELF 87
3.1 Know Thyself? 88
Thinking Philosophically Do You Know Yourself? 89
3.2 The Soul Is Immortal: Socrates and Plato 89
Plato, from Phaedo 90
Reading Critically Analyzing Socrates on the Self 92
Plato, from Phaedrus, The Chariot Analogy 94
Reading Critically Analyzing the Chariot Analogy 95
A Feminist Critique of Plato's View of the Self 95
Elizabeth V. Spelman, from Woman as Body 96
Reading Critically Analyzing Spelman's Critique of Plato 97
3.3 Descartes' Modern Perspective on the Self 97
Rene Descartes, from Meditations on First Philosophy 99
Thinking Philosophically Are You a Seeker After Truth? 101
Reading Critically Analyzing Descartes on the Mind/Body Problem 105
3.4 The Self Is Consciousness: Locke 105
John Locke, from On Personal Identity 106
Thinking Philosophically Applying Locke's Ideas 107
Reading Critically Analyzing Locke on the Conscious Self 110
3.5 There Is No Self: Hume 110
David Hume, from On Personal Identity 110
Reading Critically Analyzing Hume on the Absence of Self 113
3.6 We Construct the Self: Kant 113
Immanuel Kant, from Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics 114
Immanuel Kant, from Critique of Pure Reason 116
Thinking Philosophically Sense, Perception, and Your Self 116
Reading Critically Analyzing Kant's Unity of Consciousness 119
3.7 The Self Is Embodied Subjectivity: Husserl and Merleau-Ponty 119
Marcel Proust, from In Search of Time Lost 122
Thinking Philosophically Applying Phenomenology 122
Marcel Proust, from Within a Budding Grove 122
3.8 The Self Is the Brain: Materialism 123
Churchland, from On Eliminative Materialism 124
Reading Critically Analyzing Churchland's Materialism 128
3.9 Buddhist Concepts of the Self 128
Milindapanha, The Simile of the Chariot 129
Reading Critically Analyzing the Buddhist Chariot Analogy 130
3.10 Making Connections: In Search of the Self 130
Thinking Philosophically What Is Your Concept of the Self? 131
Writing About Philosophy Defining the Self 132
visual summary 136
chapter review 136
for further reading, viewing & research 136
4
are you free?
FREEDOM AND DETERMINISM 139
4.1 Are You the Master of Your Fate? 140
Thinking Philosophically What Are Your Assumptions About Freedom? 143
4.2 Determinism 144
Baron d'Holbach, from The System of Nature 146
Thinking Philosophically Do You Choose Freely? 152
Reading Critically Analyzing Baron d'Holbach on the Illusion of Freedom 153
4.3 Compatibilism 153
External Constraints May Limit Freedom: Stace 153
W. T. Stace, from Religion and the Modern Mind 154
Internal Constraints May Also Limit Freedom: Schlick 159
Free Will Is a Human Creation: Dennett 160
Reading Critically Evaluating Compatibilism 161
4.4 Indeterminism and Libertarianism 161
We Live in a World of Possibilities: James 162
William James, from The Will to Believe 163
Reading Critically Analyzing James on Free Will 171
We Create Ourselves Through Our Choices: Sartre 172
Jean-Paul Sartre, from Existentialism Is a Humanism 172
Reading Critically Analyzing Sartre on Freedom, Choice, and Responsibility 182
4.5 A Feminist Analysis of Freedom 182
Jean Grimshaw, from Autonomy and Identity in Feminist Thinking 182
Reading Critically Analyzing Jean Grimshaw on Autonomy 186
4.6 Making Connections: Creating a Synthesis 186
Overcoming Limitations to Your Freedom 187
Confronting External Constraints 189
Confronting Internal Constraints 189
Thinking Philosophically What Are the Limitations to Your Freedom? 191
Writing About Philosophy Understanding Personal Freedom 191
visual summary 192
chapter review 192
for further reading, viewing & research 192
5
how can we know the nature of reality?
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS 195
5.1 What Is the Nature of Reality? 196
Thinking Philosophically What Is Your Concept of Reality? 198
5.2 Reality Is the Eternal Realm of the Forms: Plato 199
The Divided Line 201
The Theory of Innate Ideas 202
Plato, from Meno 203
Reading Critically Analyzing Plato's Theory of Innate Ideas 205
The Path to Knowledge of Reality: The Cave Allegory 205
Plato, from The Republic 205
Reading Critically Analyzing Plato's Allegory of the Cave 209
5.3 Reality Is the Natural World: Aristotle 209
Aristotle's Two Categories: Matter and Form 210
Entelechy 211
The Four Causes 212
Aristotle, from Metaphysics 212
Reading Critically Analyzing Aristotle's Concept of Reality 214
5.4 Can Reality Be Known? Descartes 215
Rene Descartes, from Meditations on First Philosophy 216
Reading Critically Analyzing Descartes' Radical Doubt 227
5.5 Making Connections: Your Beliefs About the World 227
Thinking Philosophically Evaluating the Accuracy of Your Beliefs 230
Writing About Philosophy Analyzing Philosophical Themes in a Fictional Work 231
visual summary 236
chapter review 236
for further reading, viewing & research 236
6
what is real? what is true?
FURTHER EXPLORATIONS 239
6.1 Questioning Independent Reality 240
Bertrand Russell, from Appearance and Reality 241
Reading Critically How Do You Know What Is Real? 245
6.2 All Knowledge Comes from Experience: Locke 245
Locke's Critique of Universality 246
John Locke, from An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 246
Leibniz's Case Against Locke 248
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, from New Essays Concerning Human Understanding 248
Locke's Causal Theory of Perception 250
John Locke, from An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 251
Reading Critically Analyzing Locke's Empirical View 257
6.3 Reality Depends on Perception: Berkeley 258
George Berkeley, from A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge 258
Reading Critically Analyzing Berkeley's Subjective Idealism 263
6.4 Understanding Reality Demands Skepticism: Hume 263
David Hume, from An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 265
Reading Critically Analyzing Hume's Case for Skepticism 273
6.5 We Constitute Our World: Kant 273
Immanuel Kant, from Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics 274
Hume's Challenge to Philosophy 275
Kant's Solution: Transcendental Idealism 278
Immanuel Kant, from Critique of Pure Reason 283
Two Realities: Phenomenal and Noumenal 289
Reading Critically Analyzing Kant's Synthesizing Project 291
Applying Kant's Theory 291
Three Accounts of the Assassination of Malcolm X 292
Reading Critically How Is Knowledge Constructed? 294
6.6 Emotions Shape Our Understanding: Jaggar 294
Alison M. Jaggar, from Love and Knowledge: Emotion in Epistemology 295
Reading Critically Analyzing Jaggar on the Role of Emotions 302
6.7 Making Connections: Developing Informed Beliefs 303
Thinking Philosophically What Are the Limits of Your Knowledge? 305
Writing About Philosophy Constructing Knowledge 305
visual summary 306
chapter review 306
for further reading, viewing & research 306
7
is there a spiritual reality?
EXPLORING THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION 309
7.1 Thinking Philosophically About Religious Beliefs 310
Thinking Philosophically What Are Your Religious Beliefs? 311
7.2 What Is Religion? 313
Ways of Defining Religion 313
Frederick Streng, from What Is Religion? 314
Reading Critically Analyzing Streng on Definitions of Religion 317
God Is a Human Projection: Feuerbach 318
Ludwig Feuerbach, from The Essence of Christianity 318
Reading Critically Analyzing Feuerbach on Religion as Anthropomorphism 320
Religion Is Vital Quest: Nishitani 321
Keiji Nishitani, from Religion and Nothingness 321
Reading Critically Analyzing Nishitani on the Religious Quest 324
7.3 A Brief Survey of World Religions 325
Hinduism 325
Buddhism 327
Daoism (Taoism) 328
Judaism 329
Christianity 330
Islam 331
Indigenous Sacred Ways 332
Thinking Philosophically Expanding Your Religious Understanding 334
7.4 Can We Prove the Existence of God? 334
The Ontological Argument 335
Saint Anselm and Gaunilo, from The Ontological Argument 335
Reading Critically Analyzing the Ontological Argument 338
The Cosmological Argument 338
Saint Thomas Aquinas, from Summa Theologica 339
Reading Critically Analyzing the Cosmological Argument 341
The Argument from Gradations of Perfection 341
The Argument from Design 341
William Paley, from Natural Theology 342
Reading Critically Analyzing the Argument from Design 342
The Argument from Morality 343
Immanuel Kant, from Critique of Practical Reason 344
Reading Critically Analyzing the Argument from Morality 345
7.5 The Problem of Evil 346
John Hick, from Philosophy of Religion 347
Reading Critically Analyzing Hick on the Problem of Evil 350
7.6 Faith and Religious Experience 351
Religious Faith as a Wager: Pascal 352
Blaise Pascal, A Wager from Thoughts on Religion 352
Reading Critically Analyzing Pascal's Wager 354
Religious Beliefs Require Sufficient Evidence: Clifford 355
W. K. Clifford, from The Ethics of Belief 355
Reading Critically Analyzing Clifford on the Ethics of Belief 359
Religious Belief Is Legitimate and Compelling: James 359
William James, from The Will to Believe 361
Reading Critically Analyzing James on the Will to Believe 368
Subjective Knowing: The Leap of Faith 368
Soren Kierkegaard, from The Leap of Faith and the Limits of Reason 369
Soren Kierkegaard, from Concluding Unscientific Postscript 370
Reading Critically Analyzing Kierkegaard on Faith and Reason 371
7.7 Making Connections: Reflections on the Philosophy of Religion 372
visual summary 374
chapter review 374
for further reading, viewing & research 374
8
are there moral truths?
THINKING ABOUT ETHICS 377
8.1 Your Moral Compass 378
Ethics and Values 379
Thinking Philosophically What Are Your Moral Values? 381
Thinking Philosophically About Ethics 381
Thinking Philosophically Making Moral Decisions 383
8.2 Ethical Relativism 385
Ethical Subjectivism: Each Person Determines What Is Morally Right 385
Thinking Philosophically How Subjective Are Your Ethics? 389
Cultural Relativism: Each Culture Determines What Is Morally Right 390
Ruth Benedict, from Anthropology and the Abnormal 391
Thinking Philosophically Cultural Relativism and Your Moral Perspective 393
Reading Critically Analyzing Benedict on Culture and Values 394
8.3 Ethical Absolutism: Some Moral Values Are Universal 395
Thinking Philosophically Do You Believe in Universal Values? 395
W. T. Stace, from The Concept of Morals 396
Reading Critically Analyzing Stace's Critique of Ethical Relativism 400
8.4 Egoism as a Universal Principle 400
Arguments for Egoism 401
Plato, from The Republic, The Myth of Gyges 401
Reading Critically Analyzing The Myth of Gyges 403
Ayn Rand, from The Virtue of Selfishness 404
Reading Critically Analyzing Rand on the Virtue of Selfishness 406
Arguments Against Egoism 407
James Rachels, from Egoism and Moral Skepticism 407
Reading Critically Analyzing Rachels's Critique of Egoism 412
8.5 Religion and Universal Values 412
Divine Command Theory 412
Thinking Philosophically Religion and Your Ethical Values 413
The Story of Abraham and Isaac, from the Bible 414
Natural Law Theory 415
Thinking Philosophically Do You Believe in Natural Laws? 417
Martin Luther King Jr., from Letter from a Birmingham Jail 418
Reading Critically Analyzing King on Universal Values 419
8.6 Making Connections: On Becoming an Ethical Person 420
Robert Coles, from The Disparity Between Intellect and Character 420
Thinking Philosophically Can Morality Be Learned in College? 422
Writing About Philosophy Moral Issues in Multiculturalism 423
visual summary 424
chapter review 424
for further reading, viewing & research 424
9
what are right actions?
CONSTRUCTING AN ETHICAL THEORY 427
9.1 Expanding Your Knowledge of Moral Philosophy 428
9.2 Character: Virtue Ethics 428
Thinking Philosophically What Is Your Moral Character? 429
Aristotle, from The Nicomachean Ethics 429
Reading Critically Analyzing Aristotle's Virtue Ethics 438
9.3 Maxims: Duty to Moral Laws 439
Immanuel Kant, from Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals 441
Thinking Philosophically The Categorical Imperative and Your Moral Compass 446
Immanuel Kant, from Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals 447
Reading Critically Analyzing Kant on Duty and Reason 452
9.4 Consequences: Utilitarianism 452
The Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number: Bentham 453
Jeremy Bentham, from An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation 454
Thinking Philosophically Applying the Hedonistic Calculus 459
Higher Pleasures Have Greater Worth: Mill 460
John Stuart Mill, from Utilitarianism 462
Reading Critically Analyzing Utilitarianism 464
Consider the Interests of Animals: Singer 464
Peter Singer, from Animal Liberation 465
Reading Critically Analyzing Singer on Animal Rights 468
9.5 Authenticity: Existentialist Ethics 469
The Crowd Is Untruth: Kierkegaard 470
Soren Kierkegaard, from On the Dedication to `That Single Individual' 471
Soren Kierkegaard, from The Present Age 474
Reading Critically Analyzing Kierkegaard on Authenticity 476
Beyond Good and Evil: Nietzsche 476
Friedrich Nietzsche, from The Gay Science 478
Friedrich Nietzsche, from Beyond Good and Evil 479
Reading Critically Analyzing Nietzsche on Morality 480
Authenticity and Ethical Responsibility: Sartre 481
Jean-Paul Sartre, from Existentialism Is a Humanism 481
Reading Critically Analyzing Sartre on Moral Responsibility 486
Our Interplay with Others Defines Us: de Beauvoir 486
Simone de Beauvoir, from Ethics of Ambiguity 486
Reading Critically Analyzing de Beauvoir on Moral Choices 488
Courage Is the Highest Value: Camus 489
Camus, from The Myth of Sisyphus 489
Reading Critically Analyzing the Myth of Sisyphus 491
9.6 Empathy: The Ethics of Care 491
Nel Noddings, from Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education 492
Reading Critically Analyzing Noddings on the Ethics of Care 495
9.7 Making Connections: Your Moral Compass Revisited 495
Thinking Philosophically Constructing an Ethical Theory 496
Writing About Philosophy Analyzing Moral Choices in a Film or Novel 497
visual summary 498
chapter review 498
for further reading, viewing & research 498
10
what is social justice?
CREATING A JUST STATE 501
10.1 Elements of a Just Society 502
Thinking Philosophically Examining Our Society 504
10.2 Classical Theories of Society: Confucius, Plato, and Aristotle 504
Society Should Be Based on Virtue: Confucius 504
Reading Critically Analyzing Confucius on the Social Order 507
Society Should Be Based on Function and Harmony: Plato 507
Plato, from The Republic 508
Reading Critically Analyzing Plato on Social Harmony 511
Society Is the Natural State of Humanity: Aristotle 511
Aristotle, from Politics 511
Reading Critically Analyzing Aristotle on Community 514
10.3 Justice Depends on a Social Contract: From Hobbes and Locke to Rawls 514
We Need a Social Contract to Coexist: Hobbes 515
Thomas Hobbes, from Leviathan 516
Reading Critically Analyzing Hobbes on the Social Contract 520
The Social Contract Protects Natural Rights: Locke 520
John Locke, from The Second Treatise of Civil Government 521
Thomas Jefferson et al., from The Declaration of Independence: A Transcription 526
Reading Critically Analyzing Locke on Natural Rights 527
The State of Nature: Assumptions and Questions 527
The State of Nature Is a Conceptual Tool: Rawls 529
John Rawls, from A Theory of Justice 530
Thinking Philosophically Creating a Just Society 531
Reading Critically Analyzing Rawls on Justice and Equality 533
10.4 Justice Is Based on Need and Ability: Marx and Engels 533
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, from Manifesto of the Communist Party 535
Reading Critically Analyzing Marx and Engels on Social Justice 543
10.5 Justice Is What Promotes the General Welfare: Mill 543
Thinking Philosophically Analyzing Mill's Concept of Justice 545
John Stuart Mill, from On Liberty 546
Reading Critically Analyzing Mill on Liberty 551
10.6 Justice Is What Promotes Gender Equality: Okin 551
Susan Moller Okin, from Justice, Gender, and the Family 552
Reading Critically Analyzing Okin on Gender Equality 559
10.7 Making Connections: An Ideal Society 560
Thinking Philosophically Your Ideal Society 560
Writing About Philosophy Your Ideal Society 561
visual summary 568
chapter review 568
for further reading, viewing & research 568
Credits 571
Index 585
