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Preface
Acknowledgments
Part 1 Overview of Argument
1 Argument: An Introduction
What Do We Mean by Argument?
Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel
Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate
Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit
*Louis W. Sullivan, M.D., Let the Facts Decide, Not Fear
The Defining Features of Argument
Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims
Argument Is Both a Process and a Product
Argument Combines Truth Seeking and Persuasion
Argument and the Problem of Truth
A Successful Process of Argumentation: The Well-Functioning Committee
Gordon Adams (student),"Petition to Waive the University Mathematics Requirement"
Conclusion
2 Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring
Finding Issues to Explore
Do Some Initial Brainstorming
Be Open to the Issues All Around You
Explore Ideas by Freewriting
Explore Ideas by Idea-Mapping
Explore Ideas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game
Placing Texts in a Rhetorical Context
Genres of Argument
Cultural Contexts: Who Writes Arguments and Why?
Analyzing Rhetorical Context and Genre
Reading to Believe an Argument's Claims
*John Kavanaugh, Amnesty?
Summary Writing as a Way of Reading to Believe
Practicing Believing: Willing Your Own Belief in the Writer's Views
Reading to Doubt
Thinking Dialectically
Questions to Stimulate Dialectic Thinking
*Fred Reed, Why Blame Mexico?
Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking
Conclusion
Writing Assignment: An Argument Summary or Formal Exploratory Essay
Reading
*Michael Banks (student), Should the United States Grant Legal Status to Undocumented Immigrant Workers?
Part 2 Writing a Classical Argument
3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons
The Structure of a Classical Argument
Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Triangle
Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument
Difference between an Issue Question and an Information Question
How to Identify an Issue Question
Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument
Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons
What Is a Reason?
Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses
Conclusion
Writing Assignment: An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements
4 The Logical Structure of Arguments
An Overview of Logos: What Do We Mean by the "Logical Structure" of an Argument?
Formal Logic Versus Real World Logic
The Role of Assumptions
The Enthymeme: The Core of an Argument
Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System
Using Toulmin's Schema to Determine a Strategy of Support
The Power of Audience-Based Reasons
Difference between Writer-Based and Audience-Based Reasons
Finding Audience-Based Reasons: Asking Questions about Your Audience
Conclusion
Writing Assignment: Plan for the Details of an Argument
5 Using Evidence Effectively
The Persuasive Use of Evidence
Apply the STAR Criteria to Evidence
Use Sources That Your Reader Trusts
Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence
Kinds of Evidence
Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence
Examining Visual Arguments: Mosh Pit Photographs
Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence
Special Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence
Gathering Evidence
Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence
Gathering Data from Interviews
Gathering Data from Surveys or Questionnaires
Conclusion
Writing Assignment: A Microtheme or "Supporting Reasons" Argument
Reading
*Carmen Tieu (student), Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls
6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
Ethos and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview
How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility
How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Belief and Emotions
Use Concrete Language
Use Specific Examples and Illustrations
Use Narratives
Choose Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations
Using Images for Emotional Appeal
Examining Visual Arguments: Toyota Prius Ad
Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments
How Audience-Based Reasons Enhance Logos, Ethos, and Pathos
Conclusion
Writing Assignment: Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons
7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views
One-Sided, Multisided, and Dialogic Arguments
Determining Your Audience's Resistance to Your Views
Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument
Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument
Summarizing Opposing Views
Refuting Opposing Views
Strategies for Rebutting Evidence
Conceding to Opposing Views
Example of a Student Essay Using Refutation Strategy
Marybeth Hamilton (student), From "First Place: A Healing School for Homeless Children"
Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Dialogic Argument
Delayed-Thesis Argument
Ellen Goodman, Minneapolis Pornography Ordinance
Rogerian Argument
Conclusion
Writing Assignment: A Classical Argument or a Dialogic Argument Aimed at Conciliation
Readings
David Langley (student), "Half-Criminals" or Urban Athletes: A Plea for Fair Treatment of Skateboarders (A Classical Argument)
Rebekah Taylor (student), A Letter to Jim (A Rogerian Argument)
Part 3 Analyzing Arguments
8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically
Questions for Rhetorical Analysis
An Illustration of Rhetorical Analysis
*Kathryn Jean Lopez, Egg Heads
A Rhetorical Analysis of "Egg Heads"
Writing Assignment: A Rhetorical Analysis
Generating Ideas for Your Rhetorical Analysis
Organizing Your Rhetorical Analysis
Readings
*Ellen Goodman, Womb for Rent-for a Price
*Zachary Stumps (student), A Rhetorical Analysis of Ellen Goodman's "Wombs for Rent-for a Price"
9 Analyzing Visual Arguments
Understanding Design Elements in Visual Argument
Use of Type
Use of Space or Layout
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Type and Spatial Elements
Drug Enforcement Administration, "A Single Hit of Ecstasy ..." (advocacy advertisement)
Common Sense for Drug Policy, "What We Know About Ecstasy" (advocacy advertisement)
Use of Color
Use of Images and Graphics
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using All the Design Components
Save the Children, "She's the Best Qualified Teacher for Her Children" (advocacy advertisement)
The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images
General Motors, "Introducing the Saturn VUE" (consumer advertisement)
The Genres of Visual Argument
Posters and Fliers
Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements
Cartoons
Web Pages
Constructing Your Own Visual Argument
Leah Johnson (student), "Drink and Then Drive? Jeopardize My Future?" (poster)
Using Information Graphics in Arguments
How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories
Using a Graph to Tell a Story
Bar Graphs
Pie Charts
Line Graphs
Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument
Designing the Graphic
Numbering, Labeling, and Titling the Graphic
Referencing the Graphic in Your Text
Conclusion
Writing Assignment: A Visual Argument Rhetorical Analysis, a Poster Argument, or a Microtheme Using Quantitative Graphics
Part 4 Arguments in Depth: Six Types of Claims
10 An Introduction to the Types of Claims
An Overview of the Types of Claims
Using Claim Types to Focus an Argument and Generate Ideas: An Example
Making the Lasik Argument to Parents
Making the Lasik Argument to Insurance Companies
Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Types Work Together in Arguments
Some Examples of Hybrid Arguments
An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument
Reading
Aaron Friedman, All That Noise for Nothing
11 Definitional Arguments
An Overview of Arguments about Definition
The Rule of Justice: Things in the Same Category Should Be Treated the Same Way
Types of Definitional Arguments
Simple Categorical Arguments
Definitional Arguments
Examining Visual Arguments: Fascism Poster
The Criteria-Match Structure of Definitional Arguments
Developing the Criteria-Match Structure for a Definitional Argument
Toulmin Framework for a Definitional Argument
Kinds of Definitions
Aristotelian Definitions
Operational Definitions
Conducting the Criteria Part of a Definitional Argument
Approach 1: Research How Others Have Defined the Term
Approach 2: Create Your Own Extended Definition
Conducting the Match Part of a Definitional Argument
Writing Assignment: A Definitional Argument
Exploring Ideas
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What's at Stake
Organizing a Definitional Argument
Revising Your Draft
Questioning and Critiquing a Definitional Argument
Readings
*Jenefer Domingo (student), Protecting Our Homes Can Lead to Animal Cruelty
Kathy Sullivan (student), Oncore, Obscenity, and the Liquor Control Board
*David Andriesen, What Defines a Sport?
12 Causal Arguments
An Overview of Causal Arguments
Kinds of Causal Arguments
Toulmin Framework for a Causal Argument
Examining Visual Arguments: Fast Food Spoof Ad
Two Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another
First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly
Second Method: Infer Causal Links Using Inductive Reasoning
Three Ways of Thinking Inductively
Beware of Common Inductive Fallacies That Can Lead to Wrong Conclusions
Glossary of Terms Encountered in Causal Arguments
Writing Assignment: A Causal Argument
Exploring Ideas
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What's at Stake
Organizing a Causal Argument
Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument
Readings
*Julie Christianson (student), Why Lawrence Summers Was Wrong
Olivia Judson, Different but (Probably) Equal
13 Resemblance Arguments
An Overview of Resemblance Arguments
Toulmin Framework for a Resemblance Argument
Arguments by Analogy
Using Undeveloped Analogies
Using Extended Analogies
Arguments by Precedent
Writing Assignment: A Resemblance Argument
Exploring Ideas
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What's at Stake
Organizing a Resemblance Argument
Questioning and Critiquing a Resemblance Argument
Readings
Megan Matthews (student), Whales Need Silence
*Clay Bennett, Just Emancipated (editorial cartoon)
*Beth Reis, Toon Offensive
*American Association of University Professors, Football Coach Salaries
Susan Brownmiller, From Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape
14 Evaluation and Ethical Arguments
An Overview of Evaluation Arguments
Criteria-Match Structure of Categorical Evaluations
Toulmin Framework for an Evaluation Argument
Conducting a Categorical Evaluation Argument
Developing Your Criteria
Making Your Match Argument
Examining Visual Arguments: Photo of The Daily Show Cast
An Overview of Ethical Arguments
Major Ethical Systems
Consequences as the Base of Ethics
Principles as the Base of Ethics
Conducting an Ethical Argument
Constructing a Principles-Based Argument
Constructing a Consequences-Based Argument
Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments
Writing Assignment: An Evaluation or Ethical Argument
Exploring Ideas
Organizing an Evaluation Argument
Revising Your Draft
Questioning and Critiquing an Evaluation Argument
Critiquing an Ethical Argument
Readings
Sam Isaacson (student), Would Legalization of Gay Marriage Be Good for the Gay Community?
Tiffany Anderson (student), A Woman's View of Hip-Hop
Mike Luckovich, The Military's Raising the Recruitment Age (editorial cartoon)
David Holcberg, Human Organs for Sale?
15 Proposal Arguments
An Overview of Proposal Arguments
The Structure of Proposal Arguments
Toulmin Framework for a Proposal Argument
Special Concerns for Proposal Arguments
Developing a Proposal Argument
Convincing Your Readers That a Problem Exists
Showing the Specifics of Your Proposal
The Justification: Convincing Your Readers That Your Proposal Should Be Enacted
Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements
Examining Visual Arguments: An Advocacy Ad
Using the Claim-Type Strategy to Develop a Proposal Argument
Using the "Stock Issues" Strategy to Develop a Proposal Argument
Writing Assignment: A Proposal Argument
Exploring Ideas
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What's at Stake
Organizing a Proposal Argument
Designing a One-Page Advocacy Advertisement
Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal Argument
Readings
Laurel Wilson (student), A Proposal to Provide Tips for Hosts at Stone's End
*Juan Vazquez (student), Why the United States Should Adopt Nuclear Power" (MLA-style research paper)
Center for Children's Health and the Environment, "More Kids Are Getting Brain Cancer. Why?" (advocacy advertisement)
*Donald Shoup, "Gone Parkin'"
Part 5 The Researched Argument
16 Finding and Evaluating Sources
Formulating a Research Question
Understanding Differences in the Kinds of Sources
Books versus Periodicals versus Web Sites
Scholarly Books versus Trade Books
Scholarly Journals versus Magazines
Print Sources versus Cyberspace Sources
Finding Books: Searching Your Library's Online Catalog
Finding Articles: Searching a Licensed Database
What Is a Licensed Database?
Keyword Searching
Illustration of a Database Search
Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web
The Logic of the Internet
Using Web Search Engines
Determining Where You Are on the Web
Reading Your Sources Rhetorically
Reading with Your Own Goals in Mind
Reading with Rhetorical Awareness
Taking Effective Notes
Evaluating Sources
Angle of Vision
Degree of Advocacy
Reliability
Credibility
Understanding the Rhetoric of Web Sites
The Web as a Unique Rhetorical Environment
Analyzing the Purpose of a Site and Your Own Research Purpose
Sorting Sites by Domain Type
Evaluating a Web Site
Conclusion
17 Using, Citing, and Documenting Sources
Using Sources for Your Own Purposes
Creating Rhetorically Effective Attributive Tags
Using Attributive Tags to Separate Your Ideas from Your Source's
Creating Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response
Working Sources into Your Own Prose
Summarizing
Paraphrasing
Quoting
Avoiding Plagiarism
Understanding Parenthetical Citation Systems with Bibliographies
Understanding MLA Style
The MLA Method of In-Text Citation
MLA Format for the "Works Cited" List
MLA "Works Cited" Citations
Student Example of an MLA-Style Research Paper
Understanding APA Style
APA Method of In-Text Citation
APA Format for the "References" List
APA "References" Citations
Conclusion
Student Example of an APA-Style Research Paper
Megan Matthews (student), "Sounding the Alarm: Navy Sonar and the Survival of Whales"
Appendixes
One Informal Fallacies
The Problem of Conclusiveness in an Argument
An Overview of Informal Fallacies
Fallacies of Pathos
Fallacies of Ethos
Fallacies of Logos
Two The Writing Community: Working in Groups
From Conflict to Consensus: How to Get the Most Out of the Writing Community
Avoiding Bad Habits of Group Behavior
The Value of Group Work for Writers
Forming Writing Communities: Skills and Roles
Working in Groups of Five to Seven People
Working in Pairs
Group Project: Holding a "Norming Session" to Define "Good Argumentative Writing"
"Bloody Ice"
"RSS Should Not Provide Dorm Room Carpets"
"Sterling Hall Dorm Food"
"ROTC Courses Should Not Get College Credit"
"Legalization of Prostitution"
Credits
Index
*new reading