Contents
Preface
Introduction
Teaching English Learners
Chapter 1
Language Structure and Use
Ah, Language!
Language Universals
All Languages Have Structure
Language Is Dynamic
Language Is Complex
Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonemes
Stress
Pitch and Rhythm
Intonation Patterns
Teaching Pronunciation
Morphology: The Words of Language
Morphemes
Word-Formation Processes
Using Morphemes in Teaching
Syntax: The Sentence Patterns of Language
Explicit Teaching of Syntax
Semantics: The Meanings of Language
Semantic Challenges
Acquiring Vocabulary
Academic Vocabulary
Vocabulary Teaching and Concept Development
Semantic Shifts
Language Functions
Academic Language Functions
Functions and Classroom Routines
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
A Curriculum That Promotes Academic Language
Evaluating Curricula for Academic Language
Discourse
Academic Discourse
Oral Discourse in the Classroom
Discourse That Affirms Students' Voices
Pragmatics: The Influence of Context
Appropriate Language
Nonverbal Communication
Evaluating the Pragmatic Features of School Programs
Dialects and Language Variation
Dialects and the Education of English Learners
Common Features That Constitute Dialects
How Dialects Exhibit Social and Ethnic Differences
Attitudes toward Dialects
Dialects and Style
Vernacular Dialects and Language Teaching
Chapter 2
First- and Second-Language Development and Their Relationship to Academic Achievement
Processes and Stages of Language Acquisition
First-Language Acquisition
Second-Language Acquisition
First- and Second-Language Acquisition: Commonalities
Theories and Models of Second-Language Acquisition
Former Theories That Still Influence Current Practice
Current Theories of Language Development
Factors That Influence Second-Language Acquisition
Psychological Factors: The Learner's Background
Psychological Factors: Social-Emotional
Psychological Factors: Cognitive
Sociocultural and Political Factors That Influence Instruction
Part II
Assessment and Instruction
Chapter 3
Assessment of English Learners
Principles of Standards-Based Assessment and Instruction
Standards-Based Education: Federal Government Mandates
Standards for English-Language Development
Role, Purposes, and Types of Assessment
Assessment-Based Instruction
Identification, Placement, Instruction, Progress Tracking, and Redesignation/Reclassification of English Learners
Issues of Fairness in Testing English Learners
Types of Classroom Assessments for English Learners
Selecting and Using Appropriate Classroom Assessments
Assigning Grades to English Learners
Test Accommodation
Language and Content Area Assessment
Combining Language and Content Standards and Learning-Strategy Objectives
English-Language Development Assessments
Interpreting the Results of Assessment
Special Issues in Assessment
Academic and Learning Problems That English Learners May Experience
Identification, Referral, and Early Intervention of English Learners with Special Needs
Teaching Strategies for the CLD Special Learner
Chapter 4
Programs for English Learners
The History of Multilingual Competency in the United States
Early Bilingualism in the United States
The Struggles for Language Education Rights in the Twentieth Century
Legal and Legislative Mandates Supporting Language Education Rights
Federal and State Requirements for ELD Services
No Child Left Behind
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act
Proposition 227
Williams et al. v. State of California
Lau v. Nichols
The Politics of Bilingual Education
Support for Heritage-Language Proficiency
Support for Two-Way (Dual) Immersion
English-Only Efforts
What Is Fully Qualified under NCLB?
Empowerment Issues Related to English Learners
Equity and Policy Issues Related to English Learners
Components of ELD Programs
Dual-Language Development Programs (Additive Bilingualism)
Transitional Bilingual Education
Structured English Immersion
Newcomer (Front-Loaded) English
English-Language Development Programs
English-Language Development and Academic Instruction
The SDAIE-Enhanced Content Classroom
A Model for SDAIE
Parental Rights and Communicating with Families
Parental Rights
School-Community Partnerships
Chapter 5
English-Language/Literacy Development and Content Instruction
Foundations of English-Language Literacy
Connections between Oracy, Literacy, and Social Functions
Personal Factors Affecting Literacy Development in English
Promoting Literacy Development in English Across the Curriculum
Scaffolding Strategies in English Literacy Across the Curriculum
Instructional Planning and Organization for ELD and SDAIE
Planning for Standards-Based ELD and Content Instruction
Organizing the Environment to Enhance Interaction
Grouping for Student Success
Teaching Collaboratively
Differentiated Instruction in ELD and SDAIE
Bridging: Accessing and Building Prior Knowledge
Appealing to Diverse Learning Modalities
Access to Cognitive Academic Language
Teaching with SDAIE Strategies
Modifying Language without Simplification
Scaffolding: Temporary Support for Learning
Guided and Independent Practice That Promotes Students' Active Language Use
Formative Assessment and Reteaching
Summative Assessment, Culminating Performance, and Metalearning
Reflective Pedagogy
Effective Resource Use in ELD and SDAIE
Selecting and Using Appropriate Materials
Modifying Materials for Linguistic Accessibility
Culturally Appealing Materials
Technological Resources to Enhance Instruction
Teacher Commitment
Chapter 6
English-Language Development
The Focus on Communicative Interaction
What Is Communicative Competence?
The Cognitive Perspective
An Interlanguage Perspective
The Role of Grammar
Benefits of Explicit Instruction of Language
The Role of Feedback in Explicit Teaching
The Supplemental Role of Implicit Learning
Teaching Grammar
Content-Based English-Language Development
Collaboration and Reciprocity
CBI-ELD: Lesson Planning
English-Language Oracy Development
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
Listening Processes
Speaking, Communication Skills, and the ELD Standards
English-Language Literacy Development
Reading First in the Primary Language
ELD and ELA Standards in Reading
Purposes for Reading
Standards-Based Reading Instruction
Developing Word Analysis Skills
Developing Reading Fluency
Reading Processes
Developing Reading Comprehension
Developing Literary Response and Analysis Skills
Secondary-Level Content Reading
Writing and the English Learner
Generation 1.5 and College Writing
Writing as a Social Construction
Stages of Writing Development for Young English Learners
Handwriting in English
The Writing Workshop
Issues with ESL Writing
Chapter 7
Planning and Implementing SDAIE-Based Content Instruction
Planning SDAIE Lessons
Setting Objectives
Selecting and Modifying Materials
Differentiated Instructional Delivery in the Content Domains
Bridging: Accessing Prior Knowledge and Building Schemata
Vocabulary Front-Loading
Strategic Teaching Using Diverse Modalities
Access to Cognitive Academic Language Across the Content Areas
Modifying Language without Simplification in Content Delivery
Scaffolded Content Instruction
Guided and Independent Practice That Promotes Students' Active Language Use
Resources for Independent Practice
Formative Assessment and Reteaching Content
Summative Assessment of Content Lessons
Instructional Needs beyond the Classroom
Part III
Culture and Inclusion
Chapter 8
Culture and Cultural Diversity and Their Relationship to Academic Achievement
Cultural Concepts and Perspectives
What Is Culture?
Key Concepts about Culture
Looking at Culture from the Inside Out
Cultural Diversity: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives
Political and Socioeconomic Factors Affecting English Learners and Their Families
Educational Issues Involving English Learners beyond the Classroom
Cultural Contact
Fears about Cultural Adaptation
Processes of Cultural Contact
Psychological and Social-Emotional Issues Involving Cultural Contact
Resolving Problems of Cultural Contact
Cultural Diversity in the United States and California
The Demographics of Change
Migration and Immigration in the United States and California
Contemporary Causes of Migration and Immigration
The Cultural and Linguistic Challenges of Diversity
Intercultural Communication
Cultural Diversity in Nonverbal Communication
Cultural Diversity in Verbal Communication
Strategies for Intercultural Communication in the School and Classroom
Teaching Intercultural Communication
Investigating Ourselves as Cultural Beings
The Personal Dimension
Cultural Self-Study
Participating in Growth Relationships
Chapter 9
Culturally Inclusive Instruction
The Role of Culture in the Classroom and School
Acknowledging Students' Differences
The Alignment of Home and School
The Value System of the Teacher and Cultural Accommodation
Adapting to Students' Culturally Supported Facilitating or Limiting Attitudes and Abilities
Educating Students about Diversity
Global and Multicultural Education
The Multicultural Curriculum: From Additive to Transformative
Validating Students' Cultural Identity
Promoting Mutual Respect among Students
Learning about Students' Cultures
Ethnographic Techniques
Students as Sources of Information
Families as Sources of Information
Community Members as Sources of Information
The Internet as an Information Source about Cultures
Culturally Inclusive Learning Environments
What Is a Culturally Supportive Classroom?
Family and Community Involvement
Value Differences in Family and Community Support for Schooling
Issues in Family Involvement
Myths about Families and Other Communication Barriers
Enhancing Home-School Communication
Family-Teacher Conferences
How Families Can Assist in a Child's Learning
Internet Resources for Family Involvement
A Model of Home-School Relationships
Family Members as Cultural Mediators
The Home-School Connection
Involving the Family and Community in School Governance
Name Index
Subject Index