Preface
Strategies for Teaching English Learners: A Summary
I. Who Are English Learners and Their Teachers?
The Profession of Teaching English Learners
English Language Development
Educational Terminology
Critical Perspectives
Who Are English Learners and What Are Their Needs?
U.S. Demographics
ELD Services for English Learn International Demographics of English
Contexts for Teaching English Worldwide
Career Preparation for Teaching English Learners
Teaching ELD in the United States
Teaching English Around the World
Challenges for Teachers of English Learners
English as an International Language
Is English Natural, Neutral, and Beneficial?
Languages At Risk
Professional Organizations for Teachers of English Learners
TESOL, Inc. as an Organization
Other Professional Organizations
II. Critical Roles for Teachers
Educators as Critical Pedagogists
What Is Critical Pedagogy?
Critical Pedagogy as a Method
Contrasting Critical Pedagogy with Banking Models of Instruction
Sample Topics Used for Problem Posing
A Critical Sociological Look at Language and Power
Tollefson: Power and Inequality in Language Education
Foucault: The Power of Discursive Practices
Bourdieu: Language as Social Capital
Cummins: Language Policies as Emancipatory
Fairclough: Critical Language Analysis
Teaching for Social Justice
Profession, Policy, and Power in the Education of English Learners
III. Views of Teaching and Learning
Philosophy, Psychology, Anthropology, Sociology, and Postmodern Pedagogy
Teaching the Whole Person
Philosophical Foundations of Education
Progressivism
Traditionalism
Belief Systems and Teaching
Educational Psychology: Behavioral Methods
Grammar Translation
The Rise of Experimental Behaviorism
The Audiolingual Method
Total Physical Response
Direct Teaching and Mastery Learning
Advantages of Behavioral Methods
Disadvantages of Behavioral Methods
Educational Psychology: Cognitive Methods
Generative Grammar
Krashen's Monitor Model
Stages of Development
Information-Processing Theories of Mental Functioning
Alternative Theories of Mental Functioning
Brain-Compatible Learning
Neurolinguistic Research Based on Study of Brain Function
Cognitive Teaching Means a Focus on Learning
Comparing the Cognitive View with Behaviorism
Learning Styles and Strategies
Constructivist Learning
Humanistic Education: Affective and Emotional Factors 47
Integrating Cognitive and Affective Learning 47 w Self-
Esteem 47 w Motivation 50 w Anxiety 51
w Attitudes of the Learner 52 w Motivating Students Humanistically 53 w The Teacher as Counselor 54
Cultural Anthropology and Education 55
Communicative Competence 56 w Social Contexts for Language
Learning 58 w Activity Theory 59 w Communities of
Practice 59 w Culture and Schooling 59 w The Study of Classroom Discourse 59 w Culturally Responsive Teaching 60
Looking Forward: Postmodernism 60
Modernism versus Postmodernism 60 w Modernism 60
w Postmodernism 61 w Implications of Postmodernism for
Educators 62 w New Roles for English Educators 64
The Future of Teaching English Learners 64
Learner Strategies 65 w Strategies Influenced by the
Institution 65 w Strategies Influenced by the Sociocultural
Context 65
4 Performance-Based Learning 66
Why Performance-Based Learning? 66
What Is Performance-Based Learning? 66
Standards-Based Learning 67
TESOL Standards 68 w Program Standards 69 w Instruction
Aligned with TESOL Standards 69 w English-Language Development Standards 70 w Incorporating Standards into Lesson Plans 73
What Is the Best Use of Assessment? 73
The Changing Nature of Assessment 74
What Is Performance-Based Assessment? 76
Methods of Assessment 77
Assessment Terms 77 w Standardized and Less Standardized
Assessment 77 w Standardized Proficiency Tests 78
w Teacher- and Student-Created Rubrics 79 w Teacher-Constructed
Tests 81 w Portfolio Assessment 81 w Teacher Observation
and Evaluation 82 w Grading 82 w Student Self-Assessment
and Peer Assessment 82 w Other Types of Tests 82
Identification, Assessment, and Placement of English Learners
in the Schools 84
Identification Procedures for English Learners 84 w Assessment for Placement 84 w Redesignation and Exit Procedures 85
Limitations of Assessment 85
Difficulties in the Testing Situation 86 w Cautions about
Testing 86
Academic Expectations 87
How Teacher Expectations Are Formed and Communicated to Students
and How Students Respond 87 w Student Control over
Classroom Learning 90 w Intercultural Communication of
Expectations 90
Planning Instruction 91
Constructivist Planning 91 w The Direct Teaching Model 92
w Modifying the Direct Teaching Model 92
Matching Performance and Assessment 93
Setting Objectives 93 w Tasks as Objectives 94 w Task
Chains 94 w Assessing the Task Chain 95 w Formative
Assessment 95 w Summative Assessment, Culminating Performance,
and Metalearning 96
Monitoring and Adjusting Instruction 100
5 Learner Strategies and Learner-Focused Teaching 101
Learner Control and Academic Competence 101
Learner Autonomy: Self-Motivation and Self-Management 103
Self-Management 104 w Self-Managed Instruction 104
w Self-Efficacy 104 w Student Responsibility for
Learning 105
What Are Learner Strategies? 105
Indirect and Direct Strategies 106 w Strategy-Based
Instruction 106
Indirect Strategies: Second-Language Acquisition and Use 107
What Are Second-Language Use Strategies? 107
Indirect Strategies: Learning Style Preferences 109
Typologies of Learning Styles 110 w Learning Styles Applied to
the ESL/EFL Classroom 112 w Cultural Differences in Learning
Styles 112 w Measuring Learning Styles 112 w Adapting
Instruction to Learning Styles 113
Direct Strategies: Cognitive 114
Schema Building 114 w Scaffolding 115 w Alternative
Information Representation and Graphic Organizers 115 w Critical
Thinking 122 w Creative Thinking and Risk Taking 122
Direct Strategies: Metacognitive 124
Direct Strategies: Social-Affective 126
Student Opportunities to Cooperate 126 w Maintaining the First Language as an Affective Strategy 127
Direct Strategies: Academic Survival and Study Skills 127
Academic Survival Skills 127 w Native-Language Cultural Skills
and Experiences 128 w Target-Language Culture Skills 128
w Knowledge about the Culture of Academia in the Target Language 128 w Study Skills 130 w Text Processing and Time Management 131
ELD and the Content Areas 132
Content-Based Instruction in ELD 132 w Collaboration and Reciprocity 133 w CBI-ELD: Lesson Planning 134 w Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE) 134
Computer-Assisted Language Learning/Computer-Mediated
Communication 138
CALL and Second-Language Acquisition 139
6 Oracy Instruction 143
Literacy and Power 143
Listening Processes 177
Listening to Repeat: The Audiolingual Legacy 178 w Listening to Understand: The Task Approach 179 w Listening for Communication 180 w Before Listening 180 w While Listening 181 w After Listening 182 w Authentic Tasks in and out of the Real World 183
Speaking Processes 183
Difficulties with Spoken Discourse 184 w Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills 185 w Developing Oral Language 186
w Situations for Spoken Discourse 187 w Resources for Spoken Discourse 187 w Improving Pronunciation 188 w Before Speaking 189 w While Speaking 190 w After Speaking 191 w Speaking Games and Tasks 191 w Oral Discourse and Critical Communicative Competence 193 w Summary: The Conversant Student 198
7 Literacy Instruction for English Language Development 200
Reading Processes 144
Purposes for Reading 144 w Standards-Based Reading
Instruction 145 w Emergent Literacy 146 w Language
Experience Approach 147 w Direct Teaching of Reading 148
w Teaching Students Who Are Not Literate in L1 153 w A Balanced Literacy Approach 149 w The Basics of Learning to Read 149 w The Three-Stage Reading Process 153 w Schemata for the Reading Process 149 w Focus on Acquisition Vocabulary 160 w Transition Reading 160 w Stages of Reading Development for English Learners 161 w Teaching Strategies for Comprehension 161 w Teaching Literature 162
Writing Processes 165
The Role of Writing in Academic Literacies 166 w Writing as a Social Construction 167 w What Do Writers Need? 167 w Stages of
Writing Development for Young English Learners 169 w The Writing Workshop 170 w The Writing Process: Prewriting 170 w The Writing Process: Drafting 171 w Self-Correction and Revision 171 w Feedback through Peer Response and Writing Conferences 172 w The Writing Process: Editing 173 w Error Correction 173 w Publishing 174
w Issues with ESL Writing 174
8 The Learning Process and the Imaginary 200
The Importance of the Imaginary 200
Exploring the Imagination 201
Lozanov's Suggestopedia Revisited 201 w Lacan's Personality Theory
and the Imaginary 202 w The Imaginary and English Learning 203
w The Imaginary and the Development of Personality 203 w The
Imaginative Function of Language 204
Stimulating the Imagination Directly 205
Guided Imagery 205 w Creative Environments 207
w Comics 207 w Curriculum That Stimulates the
Imagination 208
Drama in the Classroom 209
Classroom Dramatics 210 w Play Scripts as Literary Text 214
w Role Play 215 w Readers Theater 217 w Puppetry 219
w Storytelling 220
Poetry and the Muse 224
A Universal Language 224 w The Sound of Poetry 225
w Poetry as Vocabulary Development 226 w Types of Poems 227
w Writing Poetry 229 w Connecting Visual and Poetic 230
w Poetry Interpretation 231
Music: Listening, Playing, Singing, Creating 233
Popular Music 233 w Culturally Authentic Music 235 w Jazz
Chants 236 w Singing Games 236
The Virtues of the Imaginary 237
9 Grammar through Integrated Language Skills
and Wonderful English 239
English Is Democratic and Creative 239
Why Integrated Skills? 240
Integrated Instructional Activities 241
Learner Output 241 w Content: Flexible, Thematic
Curriculum 242
The History of English 244
From Old to Middle English 244 w Middle English 246
w The Dual Nature of English 246 w English: Innovative
and Unregulated 249
The Curiosity and Beauty of English 252
Assets of English 253 w Complexities of English 254
w Beauty in Nuance and Sound 255
Teaching Grammar 257
Grammar as System 258 w Grammar and Emotion 258
w Grammar Games 259
Correct Usage and Discourse Competence 259
Prescriptive Language and Usage Wars 259 w A Schema for
Literature, ESL, Grammar, and Usage 262 w Integrating Grammar
into the Curriculum 263
10 Culturally Based Language Teaching 266
Culture and Language Teaching 266
The Skills and Responsibilities of the Intercultural Educator 267
Culturally Derived Learning Styles and Strategies 269
Values, Beliefs, and Practices 270 w Social Customs 270
w Rites, Rituals, and Ceremonies 271 w Work and Leisure
Systems 271 w Health and Medicine 271 w Institutional
Influences: Economic, Legal, Political, and Religious 272 w Language-Related Behaviors and Beliefs 272 w Educational Systems 272
Culturally Compatible Instruction 273
Ethnographic Study 273 w Self-Study 274 w Cultural
Observations 274 w Interviews 275 w Home Visits 275
w Sources for Learning about Cultures 275 w Culturally Responsive Pedagogy 276 w Teaching Styles (Cultural Orientation) 276
w Teacher-Student Interactions 277 w Classroom Organization
and Curriculum 277
Assuming a Bicultural Identity 277
Culture as Content 280
Why Teach Language Using Culture? 280 w Culture of the Target
Language 280 w English Teaching Using the Native Culture 283
w Bias in Teaching about Culture 287
Crosscultural Studies 287
Achieving Ethnorelativism 288 w Deeper Crosscultural
Comparison 288 w Teaching Crosscultural Content 290
Using Intercultural Communication to Teach English 290
Beyond Superficial Communication 290 w Intercultural
Conflict 290
11 Discourse in the Classrooms of English Learners 292
What Is Classroom Discourse? 292
Language Teachers at the Edge 292 w The Language and
Culture of Schooling 293 w Linguistic Features of Classroom
Discourse 294
What Discourse Genres Are Common in U.S. Classrooms? 294
The Recitation Pattern: A Typical Learning Encounter 295
w Sociohistorical Features of the Recitation Pattern 296
w Instructional Features of the Recitation Pattern 296
w Recitation Pattern: Critique 297 w Recitation Pattern:
Questioning Strategies 297 w Cooperative Learning as an
Alternative Pattern 300 w The Instructional Conversation
(IC) as a Discourse Alternative 301
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency 303
The Language of Thought 303 w The Teacher's Role in
Promoting CALP 305
Discourse That Affirms Students' Voices 305
12 Dual-Language Proficiency 307
Schooling in Two Languages 307
Why Dual-Language Acquisition? 307 w Bilingual Education and
the Teaching of English 308 w Submersion (Sink or Swim) 308
w Transitional Bilingual and Structured Immersion Programs 309
Dual-Literacy Programs: An Introduction 311
Developmental Bilingual Programs in the United States 311 w Second-
and Foreign-Language Immersion Programs for Majority-Language
Students 312 w Two-Way Immersion Programs for Majority-Language and Minority-Language Students 312 w Advocacy for Dual-Language Programs 314 w The Role of Monolingual English Instructors in a
Dual-Language Program 315
Biliteracy in a TWI Context 315
Complexities of Biliteracy 315 w Questions about Biliteracy 316
w A Teaching Unit in Two Languages 316
Principles of Language Transfer 318
Metalinguistic Awareness and Common Underlying Proficiency 318
w Teaching for Transfer: Language Acquisition Processes 319
Biliteracy and Biculturality 321
13 Teaching English in Context 323
Dialects in English 324
Dialects and the Education of English Learners 324 w Common
Features That Constitute Dialects 326 w How Dialects Exhibit Social
and Ethnic Differences 328 w Attitudes Toward Dialects 329
w Dialects and Speaking Style 331 w Gender and Language
Variation 333 w Vernacular Dialects and Language Teaching 336
Teaching Standard English: Whose Standard? 336
Language Variety as a Goal of Instruction 337
Some Sample Registers in Oracy 338 w Some Sample Registers
in Literacy 338 w Gender-Typical Registers 339 w Teaching
Oral Register Shifts 339
Situated Literacy and Academic Registers 339
The Individual World of Literacy 340 w Situated Literacy:
Synthesis of Practices 340 w Teaching Academic Registers 341
w Academic Competence: Psychological Factors 344 w Academic Competence: Sociocultural Factors 344 w Academic Competence Demanded to Perform Undergraduate-Level Academic Writing 344
w Academic Competence Demanded to Perform Graduate-Level Academic Writing 345 w Task Demands of Academic Writing in an MATESOL Program 346
14 Building a Community of Learners 348
What Is a Community of Learners? 348
The Classroom as a Community 349 w Forming a Learning
Community 351 w Critical Perspectives on Community Involvement 351 w Listening to the Learner 352 w Not-So-Critical Perspectives
on Community Involvement 354 w A Model for Community
Involvement 355
Why Involve Families? 363
Changing Definitions of Family Involvement 364 w Recognizing
Rights of Families 364 w Issues in Family Involvement 365
w Myths about Families and Other Communication Barriers 367
w Enhancing Home-School Communication 367 w Teacher-
Family Conferences 367 w How Families Can Assist in a Child's
Learning 369 w A Model of Home-School Relationships 370
Community Funds of Knowledge 370
Transformative School-Community Partnerships 374
Empowerment as a Goal 374 w Getting to Know the
Community 374 w School Partnerships with Community-
Based Organizations 375 w Community Support for English
Learners 375
The Idea of Community 376
15 Project-Based Learning and Service Learning 378
Why Projects? 378
Facing the Real World 378 w Characteristics of PBL 379
w Benefits of PBL 379 w Projects Are Collaborative 379
w The Teacher as Guide 380 w Skill Integration 381
w Design, Documentation, and Discourse 382
w Representation 382 w Thematic Projects in the Elementary School 384
Projects at Urban High Schools 384 w Community-Based
Projects 385 w Project-Based Learning in EFL 385 w Projects
in Intensive English Programs 385 w Projects in Teacher
Education 386
Choosing a Project Topic 386
Mapping the Project 389 w Topics across Disciplines 390
w Envisioning Success 390
Project Focus and Development 391
Project Development 391 w The Planning Cycle 392 w Task Representation 393 w Example of the Desired Product 394
w Guided Implementation 395 w Self-Checking (Quality
Control) 396 w Recommendation for Improvement 397
Project Documentation and Evaluation 397
Process Counts 397 w Student Presentation of Product 397
w Feedback and Reflection 398 w Planning for Assessment 398
w Conducting Project Assessment 399 w Criteria for Project
Assessment 400
Why Service Learning? 402
Definitions 402 w Extent of Participation 403 w Components
of Service Learning 404 w Benefits of Service Learning 405
w What Constitutes Good Service-Learning Pedagogy? 406 w Students
Serving Others: Some Examples 406
Building Relationships with Service Agencies 406
Reciprocity 407 w Types of Service-Learning Opportunities 407
w Identification of Community Partners 407
Designing a Service-Learning Project 408
Determining the Learning Goal(s) 409 w Proposing Performance-Based Results 410
Monitoring and Evaluating Service Learning 411
The Reflective Component 411 w Assessing Performance-Based
Results 413 w The Critical Component 415
Finding Out More about Service Learning 416
Appendix A Influencing Language Policies to Benefit English Learners 417
Policy at the Classroom Level 417
Policy at the School Level 418
Involving Parents in Policy Making 419
Policy Decisions in Local School Districts 419
Professional Organizations and Service 420
Influencing Community Public Opinion 420
Influencing Legislation and Public Opinion 421
Influencing Federal Policies 421
The National Spirit 421
Appendix B
English Learners and Special Education 423
Appendix C
Bibliography of Works Used
for Visual Imaginary Dramatic Arts 423
Bibliography 425
Author Index 457
Subject Index 464
