Preface Thinking Critically About Drugs Pharmacological Research Ask Specific Research Questions Carefully Consider Your Study Population Choose an Appropriate Method of Investigation Use Valid and Precise Measurements Conduct a Safe, Ethical, and Unbiased Study Maintain Objectivity Consider the Quality of and Vetting of Information Techniques in Neuropharmacological Research Animal Research Brain Imaging Techniques Critical Thinking Recognize Underlying Value Assumptions Evaluate the Strength of the Argument Critically Evaluate Graphs and Data Drugs in the Media Movies Television Music Advertising SECTION 1: FOUNDATIONS Chapter 1. Drugs: Mind, Body, and Society What is a Drug? How Prevalent is Drug Use? Global Drug Use Demographics of Drug Use in the United States Most Commonly Used Drugs Prescription Drugs Variations in Drug Use over Time Why Do People Use Drugs? To Feel Pleasure and to Avoid Feeling Pain To Change the State of Consciousness To Enhance Spiritual, Religious, or Mystical Experiences To Facilitate and Enhance Social Interaction To Alter and Improve the Body How Does Drug Use Affect Individuals and Society? Individual Problems with Acute Use Individual Problems with Chronic Use Societal Problems Associated with Drug Use How Are Drugs Classified? Drug Types Drug Naming Drug Scheduling How Are New Drugs Developed? FDA Drug Development and Approval Direct-to-Consumer Pharmaceutical Advertising Critical Evaluation: Should pharmaceutical companies be allowed to produce direct-to-consumer ads? Chapter 2. Drug Laws and Policies History of Drug Policy 1950s: Increasing Penalties for Drug Crimes 1970 Controlled Substances Act 1984-1988 Drug Abuse Control Acts The 1990s and Beyond Current Drug Laws Federal Agencies that Create and Enforce Drug-Control Laws Federal Drug Laws State and Local Drug Laws International Drug Laws and Policies Harm Reduction Policies Reduce Health Risks Associated with Drug Use Reduce Prison Overcrowding Focus on Treatment Rather than Punishment Ramifications of Drug Laws Individual Ramifications Societal Ramifications International Ramifications Legalization Critical Evaluation: What is the relationship between drugs and crime? Factors Considered When Evaluating a Drug's Legal Status Public Opinion on Drug Laws Issues Related to Legalizing Drugs Social Policies Related to Drug Use Minimum Legal Drinking Age Critical Evaluation: Should the U.S. minimum legal drinking age be lowered? Drunk Driving Drug Use during Pregnancy Chapter 3. The Nervous System The Structure and Function of Neurons Neuronal Transmission Action Potentials Actions at a Chemical Synapse The Peripheral and Central Nervous Systems The Peripheral Nervous System The Central Nervous System Protection of the CNS Neurotransmitters GABA Glutamate Catecholamines Serotonin Acetylcholine Opioids Cannabinoids Chapter 4. Pharmacology: How Drugs Work Pharmacokinetics Absorption Dosage Route of Administration Distribution Metabolism and Biotransformation Elimination Pharmacodynamics Receptors Drug Expectations and the Placebo Effect Setting Effects and Side Effects of Acute Drug Use Effects of Chronic Drug Use SECTION 2: LEGALLY RESTRICTED PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS Chapter 5. Stimulants: Cocaine and Amphetamines Cocaine History of Cocaine Prevalence of Cocaine Use Source and Forms of Cocaine Pharmacokinetics of Cocaine Mechanism of Action of Cocaine Acute Effects of Cocaine Chronic Effects of Cocaine Critical Evaluation: What are the long-term effects of prenatal cocaine use on children's future behavior? Cocaine Dependence and Addiction Treatment of Cocaine Addiction Amphetamines History of Amphetamines Prevalence of Amphetamine Use Source and Forms of Amphetamines Pharmacokinetics of Amphetamines Mechanism of Action of Amphetamines Acute and Adverse Effects of Amphetamines Chronic Effects of Amphetamines Amphetamine Dependence and Addiction Other Stimulants Cathinone/Khat Bath Salts Chapter 6. Hallucinogens History of Hallucinogens History of LSD and Psilocybin History of Peyote/Mescaline History of MDMA History of PCP and Ketamine Prevalence of Hallucinogen Use Source and Forms of Hallucinogens Indoleaminic Psychedelic Hallucinogens Phenylethamine Psychedelic Hallucinogens Anticholinergic Deliriants Dissociative Hallucinogens Cultural and Religious Influence of Hallucinogens Literature Music Religion Pharmacokinetics of Hallucinogens Dosage Routes of Administration Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Elimination Mechanism of Action of Hallucinogens Psychedelic Hallucinogens MDMA Deliriants and Dissociatives Acute Effects of Hallucinogens Physiological and Psychological Effects of Psychedelic Hallucinogens Physiological and Psychological Effects of MDMA Physiological and Psychological Effects of Deliriant Hallucinogens Physiological and Psychological Effects of Dissociative Anesthetics Drug Interactions Medical and Therapeutic Uses of Hallucinogens Chronic Effects of Hallucinogens Tolerance Adverse Effects of Chronic Use Critical Evaluation: Is MDMA neurotoxic in humans, and does it cause cognitive damage? Hallucinogen Dependence and Addiction Chapter 7. Opioids History of Opioids Early Opioid Use Smoking Opium Opium Wars Opioids in the 19th Century Opioids in the 20th Century Prevalence of Opioid Use Prescription Opioids Heroin Source and Forms of Opioids Natural Opiates Semisynthetic Opioids Synthetic Opioids Pharmacokinetics of Opioids Routes of Administration Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Elimination Mechanism of Action of Opioids Opioid Receptors Endogenous Opioids Acute Effects of Opioids Physiological Effects at Low and Moderate Doses Behavioral and Psychological Effects at Low and Moderate Doses Drug Interactions Overdose Medical and Therapeutic Uses of Opioids Pain Cough Suppressant Diarrhea Treatment Chronic Effects of Opioids Tolerance Adverse Effects of Chronic Use Opioid Dependence and Addiction Treatment for Opioid Dependence and Addiction Withdrawal Treatments to Aid Withdrawal Ultra-Rapid Opioid Detoxification Substitution Opioids Programs to Help Quit Opioids Needle Exchange Programs Critical Evaluation: Should Needle Exchange Programs Be Funded by the Federal Government? Chapter 8. Sedatives, Hypnotics, and Inhalants Sedatives and Hypnotics History of Sedatives and Hypnotics Prevalence of Sedative and Hypnotic Use Source and Forms of Sedatives and Hypnotics Pharmacokinetics of Sedatives and Hypnotics Mechanism of Action of Sedatives and Hypnotics Acute Effects of Sedatives and Hypnotics Medical and Therapeutic Uses of Sedatives and Hypnotics Chronic Effects of Sedatives and Hypnotics Other Sedative/Hypnotic Drugs GHB Quaaludes Propofol Inhalants History of Inhalants Prevalence of Inhalant Use Source and Forms of Inhalants Pharmacokinetics and Mechanism of Action of Inhalants Acute Effects of Inhalants Chronic Effects of Inhalants Critical Evaluation: Are the cognitive impairments seen in huffers due to inhalant use or to other factors? Chapter 9. Cannabis History of Cannabis 17th- to 19th-Century America 20th Century and Beyond Prevalence of Cannabis Use Legal and Cultural Issues Related to Cannabis Legal Issues Cultural Issues Source and Forms of Cannabis Types of Cannabis Plant Phytocannabinoids Types of Cannabis Products Synthetic Cannabinoids Pharmacokinetics of Cannabis Pharmacokinetics of Cannabis Pharmacodynamics of Cannabis Mechanism of Action of Cannabis Acute Effects of Cannabis Physiological Effects at Low and Moderate Doses Behavioral and Psychological Effects at Low and Moderate Doses Potential Adverse Effects Critical Evaluation: Does long-term cannabis use cause cognitive deficits? Medical and Therapeutic Uses of Cannabis Analgesia Nausea, Vomiting, and Appetite Epilepsy Cancer Brain Injury and Neurodegenerative Disorders Diabetes Other Potential Therapeutic Benefits Chronic Effects of Cannabis Tolerance Dependence Withdrawal Treatment for Cannabis Dependence SECTION 3: LEGAL PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS Chapter 10. Tobacco History of Tobacco Early Tobacco Use in Europe Tobacco in Colonial America Mechanization Tobacco in the 20th Century Troubled Times for the Tobacco Industry Prevalence of Tobacco and Nicotine Use Gender Race Education Employment and Socioeconomic Status Concurrent Use of Other Drugs Mental Health Age Economic, Legal, and Social Issues Related to Tobacco Economics Advertising Movies Source and Forms of Tobacco Making Tobacco Smoking Tobacco Electronic Cigarettes Smokeless Tobacco Pharmacokinetics of Tobacco and Nicotine Dosage, Absorption, and Distribution Metabolism and Elimination Drug Interactions Mechanism of Action of Nicotine Acute Effects of Tobacco and Nicotine Physiological Effects at Low and Moderate Doses Overdose Behavioral and Psychological Effects at Low and Moderate Doses Chronic Effects of Tobacco and Nicotine Tolerance Withdrawal Adverse Effects from Chronic Use Prenatal and Postnatal Effects Secondhand Smoke Critical Evaluation: Should tobacco be legal? Tobacco Dependence and Addiction Quitting Tobacco and Nicotine Benefits of Quitting Methods of Quitting Chapter 11. Caffeine History of Caffeine Coffee Tea Chocolate Soft Drinks and Energy Drinks Prevalence of Caffeine Use Source and Forms of Caffeine Coffee Tea Chocolate Soft Drinks and Energy Drinks Other Caffeine Sources How Much Caffeine Is in the Substances We Ingest? Pharmacokinetics of Caffeine Route of Administration, Absorption, and Distribution Metabolism, Elimination, and Drug Interactions Mechanism of Action of Caffeine Acute Effects of Caffeine Physiological Effects at Low and Moderate Doses Behavioral and Psychological Effects at Low and Moderate Doses Overdose Medical and Therapeutic Uses of Caffeine Type 2 Diabetes Liver Cognitive Function Parkinson's Disease Cardiovascular Disease Cancer Mortality Critical Evaluation: Does caffeine increase or decrease a person's mortality? Chronic Effects of Caffeine Tolerance and Dependence Withdrawal Adverse Effects from Chronic Use Effects on the Fetus Quitting Caffeine Chapter 12. Alcohol History of Alcohol Early Alcohol Use The Middle Ages to the Early Modern Era Puritans and Colonial America Temperance Movements in the United States (19th Century) Prohibition Alcohol from World War II to Today Prevalence of Alcohol Use Global Alcohol Use Alcohol Consumption in the United States Underage Drinking Drinking by College Students Source and Forms of Alcohol Fermented Beverages Distilled Beverages Alcohol Content of Standard Drinks Pharmacokinetics of Alcohol Dosage Absorption Distribution Metabolism Elimination Drug Interactions Mechanism of Action of Alcohol GABA Glutamate Dopamine Opioids Serotonin Endogenous Cannabinoids Acute Effects of Alcohol Physiological Effects Behavioral and Psychological Effects Critical Evaluation: Does alcohol increase aggression? Adverse Effects from Acute Heavy Drinking Medical and Therapeutic Uses of Alcohol Chronic Effects of Alcohol Tolerance Withdrawal Adverse Effects of Chronic Heavy Drinking SECTION 4: COMMONLY USED PRESCRIPTION AND NONPRESCRIPTION DRUGS Chapter 13. Drugs for Treating Psychological Disorders Psychological Disorders in Today's Society Major Depressive Disorder Prevalence of Depression Critical Evaluation: Why have depression rates increased? Causes of Depression Symptoms of Depression Diagnosis of Depression Prognosis of Depression Antidepressant Treatments Other Treatments for Depression Bipolar Disorder Prevalence of Bipolar Depression Causes of Bipolar Depression Symptoms of Bipolar Depression Treatment of Bipolar Depression Schizophrenia Prevalence of Schizophrenia Causes of Schizophrenia Symptoms of Schizophrenia Prognosis of Schizophrenia Treatments for Schizophrenia Other Treatments for Schizophrenia Anxiety Disorders Prevalence of Anxiety Disorders Causes of Anxiety Disorders Symptoms and Types of Anxiety Disorders Treatment of Anxiety Disorders Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders The Future of Drugs Used to Treat Mental Illness Chapter 14. Performance-Enhancing Drugs Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids History of Performance-Enhancing Drugs Prevalence of Performance-Enhancing Drugs Use Forms of Performance-Enhancing Drugs Pharmacokinetics and Mechanism of Action of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids Acute Effects of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids Critical Evaluation: Does "roid rage" exist? Medical and Therapeutic Uses of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Tolerance and Dependence Prevention and Treatment of Anabolic- Androgenic Steroid Abuse Drugs to Treat Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms and Diagnosis of ADHD Prevalence of ADHD Causes of ADHD Consequences of ADHD Pharmacological Treatments for ADHD Critical Evaluation: Does long-term use of ADHD medications lead to academic improvement? Nonpharmaceutical Treatments for ADHD Chapter 15. Over-the-Counter (OTC) Drugs OTC Drugs: Regulation and Dangers History of Over-the-Counter Regulations Dangers of Over-the-Counter Drugs and Self-Care Critical Evaluation: Should OTC drugs be more or less available than they currently are? Non-Narcotic Analgesics History of Non-Narcotic Analgesics Prevalence of Non-Narcotic Analgesic Use Pharmacokinetics of Non-Narcotic Analgesics Mechanism of Action of Non-Narcotic Analgesics Acute Effects and Medical Benefits of Non-Narcotic Analgesics at Low and Moderate Doses Moderate Doses Adverse Effects of Non-Narcotic Analgesics Side Effects Associated with Non- Narcotic Analgesics Use during Pregnancy Drug Interactions Overdose Cough, Cold, and Allergy Products Components of Cough and Cold Medications OTC Drugs to Treat Gastrointestinal Ailments Drugs to Treat Heartburn, Gastric Reflux, and Peptic Ulcer Drugs to Treat Diarrhea Laxatives OTC Weight Loss Aids OTC Sleep Aids Dietary Supplements Chapter 16. Sex and Reproductive Drugs Hormonal Contraceptives Oral Contraceptives Other Forms of Hormonal Contraceptives Emergency Contraception Hormonal Contraceptives and Society Contraception for Men Fertility Drugs How an Egg Is Fertilized Infertility Drugs to Treat Infertility Hormone Replacement Therapy Hormone Replacement Therapy in Women Hormone Replacement Therapy in Men Hormone Replacement Therapy for Transgender Individuals Viagra and Other Drugs to Treat Erectile Dysfunction Mechanism of Action of Drugs to Treat Erectile Dysfunction Side Effects and Drug Interactions of Erectile Dysfunction Drugs Drugs to Treat Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder in Women Aphropdisiacs and Anaphrodisiacs Herbs and Plants Alcohol and Other Drugs Anaphrodisiacs Gardasil Critical Evaluation: Should the HPV Vaccine Be Required for Enrollment in Schools? SECTION 5: ADDICTION, PREVENTION, AND TREATMENT Chapter 17. Problematic Drug Use and Addiction Definitions of Dependence and Addiction Prevalence of Addiction Addiction and Race Addiction and Age Addiction and Gender Recognition, Diagnosis, and Assessment Critical Evaluation: Is addiction a disease? Factors Underlying Drug Abuse and Addiction Biological Factors Psychological and Interpersonal Factors Social and Environmental Factors Societal Views on Drug Addiction Attitudes about Addiction Based on Gender Attitudes about Addiction Based on Occupation Attitudes about Addiction Based on Survey Question Wording Why Do People's Beliefs About Addiction Matter? Attitudes about Problematic Drinking and Other Compulsive Behaviors Chapter 18. Prevention and Treatment of Drug Use and Abuse Types of Prevention Primary Prevention Secondary Prevention Tertiary Prevention Universal Prevention Selective Prevention Indicated Prevention School-Based Prevention Campaigns Ineffective K-12 School-Based Methods of Drug Abuse Prevention Effective School-Based Methods of Drug Abuse Prevention Family and Community Involvement Alcohol and Drug Prevention Programs at Colleges and Universities Advertising Campaigns to Prevent Drug Use Anti-Drug Ads Anti-Tobacco Ads Drug Testing Who is Subject to Drug Tests? When Do Drug Tests Typically Occur? What Process is Used for Drug Testing? For Which Drugs Are Tests Run? How Long after Using a Drug will Someone Test Positive? What Types of Drug Tests Are Used? How Accurate Are Drug Tests? How Effective Are Drug Tests? Prevalence of Treatment for Alcohol and Drug Addiction The Stages of Recovery Methods of Treatment Pharmacological Treatments for Addiction Psychosocial Therapeutic Treatments for Addiction Critical Evaluation: Is total abstinence the only solution for drug or alcohol abuse? Characteristics of Effective Addiction Treatments Relapse Appendix Answers to Quiz Yourself! Questions Glossary Endnotes Credits Index
