Contributors, xxiv
Preface, xxxv
1 Traditional chocolate making, 1
Stephen T. Beckett
1.1 History, 1
1.2 Outline of the process, 2
1.3 Concept of the book, 7
References, 8
2 Cocoa beans: from tree to factory, 9
Mark S. Fowler and Fabien Coutel
2.1 Introduction, 9
2.2 Growing cocoa, 10
2.3 Fermentation and drying, 20
2.4 The cocoa supply chain, 25
2.5 The cocoa value chain: long-term perspectives and challenges, 31
2.6 Quality assessment of cocoa, 34
2.7 Types and origins of cocoa beans used in chocolate, 42
Conclusions, 47
References, 48
Appendix: Abbreviations, acronyms and organisations, 49
3 Production of cocoa mass, cocoa butter and cocoa powder, 50
Henri J. Kamphuis, revised by Mark S. Fowler
3.1 Introduction, 50
3.2 Cleaning of cocoa beans, 50
3.3 Removal of shell, 52
3.4 Breaking and winnowing, 53
3.5 Alkalisation, 54
3.6 Bean and nib roasting, 54
3.7 Cocoa mass (cocoa liquor), 58
3.8 Cocoa butter, 62
3.9 Cocoa press cake and cocoa powder, 65
Conclusion, 69
Appendix: Manufacturers of cocoa processing equipment, 70
References and further reading, 70
4 Sugar and bulk sweeteners, 72
Christof Kruger
4.1 Introduction, 72
4.2 The production of sugar, 72
4.3 Sugar qualities, 74
4.4 The storage of sugar, 75
4.5 Sugar grinding and the prevention of sugar dust explosions, 77
4.6 Amorphous sugar, 80
4.7 Other sugars and bulk sweeteners, 81
4.8 Physiological characteristics of sugars, bulk sweeteners and special polysaccharides, 89
4.9 The sweetening power of sugars and bulk sweeteners, 92
4.10 Other sensory properties of sugars and bulk sweeteners, 93
4.11 Solubilities and melting points of sugars and bulk sweeteners, 95
4.12 Maximum conching temperatures of chocolate masses with different bulk sweeteners, 95
4.13 Separate conching process for no sugar added chocolates, 97
4.14 Pre- and probiotic chocolates, 97
Conclusions, 98
References, 98
5 Ingredients from milk, 102
Ulla P. Skytte and Kerry E. Kaylegian
5.1 Introduction, 102
5.2 Milk components, 103
5.3 Milk-based ingredients for chocolate, 114
Conclusion, 131
References, 131
6 Chocolate Crumb, 135
Martin A. Wells
6.1 Introduction and history, 135
6.2 Benefits of milk crumb, 136
6.3 Typical crumb recipes, 137
6.4 Flavour development in chocolate crumb, 137
6.5 Sugar crystallisation during crumb manufacture, 141
6.6 The structure of chocolate crumb, 142
6.7 Typical crumb processes and equipment, 145
6.8 Effect of the crumb process upon the crumb properties, 150
6.9 Changes to crumb during storage, 150
Conclusion, 151
References, 152
7 Properties of cocoa butter and vegetable fats, 153
Geoff Talbot
7.1 Introduction, 153
7.2 Cocoa butter, 154
7.3 Cocoa butter equivalents, 162
7.4 Lauric cocoa butter substitutes, 176
7.5 Non-lauric cocoa butter replacers, 179
7.6 Vegetable fats with specific properties, 181
Conclusion, 182
References and further reading, 183
8 Flavour development in cocoa and chocolate, 185
Gottfried Ziegleder
8.1 Introduction, 185
8.2 Fermentation, 185
8.3 Drying, 190
8.4 Roasting, 193
8.5 Conching, 201
8.6 Dark chocolate and milk chocolate, 205
8.7 Flavour release in chocolate, 208
References, 209
9 Particle size reduction, 216
Gregory R. Ziegler and Richard Hogg
9.1 Introduction, 216
9.2 Principles of fine grinding, 217
9.3 Grinding equipment, 220
9.4 Cocoa nib grinding, 224
9.5 Chocolate refining, 226
9.6 Particle size reduction and chocolate flow properties, 233
9.7 Particle size and sensory properties, 237
Conclusions, 238
References, 239
10 Conching, 241
Stephen T. Beckett, Konstantinos Paggios and Ian Roberts
10.1 Introduction: the reason for conching, 241
10.2 The principles of conching, 242
10.3 The three phases of conching, 248
10.4 Conching machines, 251
Conclusion, 272
References and further reading, 273
11 Chocolate flow properties, 274
Bettina Wolf
11.1 Introduction, 274
11.2 Non-Newtonian flow, 275
11.3 Presentation of viscosity measurements, 278
11.4 Single point flow measurement, 279
11.5 Rotational viscometers, 282
11.6 Vibrational viscometers, 285
11.7 Oscillatory rheometers, 285
11.8 Sample preparation and measurement procedures, 286
11.9 Factors affecting the flow properties of chocolate, 289
11.10 Advanced methods to characterise chocolate flow behaviour, 295
Conclusions, 296
Acknowledgements, 296
References, 296
12 Bulk chocolate handling, 298
John H. Walker
12.1 Introduction, 298
12.2 Viscosity and viscometry, 298
12.3 Pump sizes, 301
12.4 General criteria for choosing a pump, 301
12.5 Types of pump, 302
12.6 Pipeline pigging, 307
12.7 Storage of liquid chocolate, 308
12.8 Jacketed pipe work, 309
12.9 Valves, 311
12.10 Contamination removal, 312
Conclusions, 313
Acknowledgements, 313
13 Tempering, 314
Erich J. Windhab
13.1 Introduction, 314
13.2 Physics of cocoa butter crystallisation, 315
13.3 Chocolate tempering technology, 316
13.4 Measurement of temper and its related characteristics, 318
13.5 Tempering processes, 323
13.6 Types of tempering machine, 331
13.7 Properties of CBCS tempered chocolate, 346
13.8 Other methods of tempering, 352
Conclusion, 352
Acknowledgements, 353
References and further reading, 353
Appendix: Machinery manufacturers, 355
14 Moulding, enrobing and cooling chocolate products, 356
Michael P. Gray, revised and updated by Angel Manez-Cortell
14.1 Introduction, 356
14.2 Moulding, 356
14.3 Enrobing, 383
Conclusions, 398
Acknowledgements, 398
References and further reading, 398
15 Non-conventional machines and processes, 400
Dave J. Peters
15.1 Introduction, 400
15.2 Ultrasound, 400
15.3 High shear/low temperature crystalliser, 402
15.4 High pressure temperer, 404
15.5 Extrusion, 405
15.6 Single shot depositors, 413
15.7 Aeration of chocolate, 418
15.8 Cold forming technologies, 421
15.9 Paste conching, 428
Conclusions, 428
References, 429
16 Chocolate panning, 431
Marcel Aebi, revised by Mark S. Fowler
16.1 Introduction, 431
16.2 Panning methods, 432
16.3 The process of chocolate panning, 434
16.4 Packaging and storage, 444
16.5 The panning department, 445
Conclusions and future developments, 449
References and further reading, 449
Appendix: Manufacturers of panning equipment, 449
17 Chocolate rework, 450
Edward Minson and Randall Hofberger
17.1 Introduction, 450
17.2 Rework, 450
17.3 Constraints, 451
17.4 Economics, 453
Conclusions, 455
References, 455
18 Artisan chocolate making, 456
Sophie Jewett
18.1 Introduction, 456
18.2 Chocolate trends in mature markets, 456
18.3 Selecting the right product lines to make, 458
18.4 Critical considerations, 464
18.5 Taking products to market, 469
18.6 Selecting the right chocolate, 473
18.7 Hand-tempering techniques, 474
Conclusions, 478
Further reading, 478
19 Chocolate compounds and coatings, 479
Stuart Dale
19.1 Introduction, 479
19.2 What are chocolate compounds and coatings?, 479
19.3 Manufacture of compounds and coatings, 482
19.4 How compounds are used, 485
19.5 Benefits of using chocolate compounds, 485
19.6 Trans fatty acids in chocolate compounds, 488
19.7 Environmental aspects, 489
19.8 Summary of the properties of compound coatings, 489
19.9 The future of compound coatings, 489
References and further reading, 491
20 Recipes, 492
Edward G. Wohlmuth
20.1 Chocolate tastes in different countries, 492
20.2 The basic ingredients, 494
20.3 Conching to develop flavours, 495
20.4 Chocolate recipes, 496
Conclusions, 508
21 Sensory evaluation of chocolate and cocoa products, 509
Meriel L. Harwood and John E. Hayes
21.1 Introduction, 509
21.2 Types of sensory tests, 510
21.3 Special considerations, 513
21.4 General considerations/good sensory testing practices, 517
Conclusions, 519
References, 519
22 Nutritional and health aspects of chocolate, 521
Joshua D. Lambert
22.1 Introduction, 521
22.2 Macronutrients, 522
22.3 Vitamins and minerals, 523
22.4 Flavanols and proanthocyanidins, 523
22.5 Methylxanthines, 524
22.6 Cardiovascular disease, 524
22.7 Obesity and metabolic syndrome, 525
22.8 Inflammation, 526
22.9 Neuroprotective and cognitive effects, 527
Conclusions, 529
Acknowledgements, 529
References, 529
23 Quality control and shelf life, 532
Marlene B. Stauffer
23.1 Introduction, 532
23.2 Finding the perfect bean, 532
23.3 Cocoa bean preparation on arrival, 535
23.4 Cocoa bean cleaning, 535
23.5 Roasting of cocoa beans, 537
23.6 Cocoa nib grinding, 539
23.7 Cocoa butter pressing, 541
23.8 Cocoa powder, 542
23.9 Chocolate manufacturing, 542
23.10 Specifications, 547
23.11 Tempering, 548
23.12 Shelf life of finished confections, 549
24 Instrumentation, 555
Ulrich Loeser
24.1 Introduction, 555
24.2 Production measurement technology - in-/on-line, off-line, 557
24.3 Laboratory analysis, 584
24.4 Summary of important analytical procedures in a typical quality assurance laboratory, 594
Conclusions, 595
Acknowledgements, 596
References and further reading, 596
25 Food safety in chocolate manufacture and processing, 598
Faith Burndred and Liz Peace
25.1 Introduction, 598
25.2 The importance of food safety management in chocolate processing, 598
25.3 HACCP and prerequisite programmes, 599
25.4 Physical hazards, 599
25.5 Chemical hazards, 604
25.6 Microbiological hazards, 607
25.7 Allergen hazards, 614
Conclusions, 617
References, 617
26 Packaging, 620
Carl E. Jones
26.1 Introduction, 620
26.2 Confectionery types, 620
26.3 Flow wrap machinery and sealing, 631
26.4 Materials, 633
26.5 Sustainability, 646
26.6 Portion control, 648
26.7 Quality control and environmental criteria, 651
References and further reading, 653
27 The global chocolate confectionery market, 654
Jonathan Thomas
27.1 Background, 654
27.2 The global chocolate market, 656
27.3 Industry supply, 657
27.4 Global production and consumption of chocolate, 659
27.5 Reasons for eating confectionery, 662
27.6 The marketing of confectionery, 665
27.7 The regulatory position, 669
Conclusions, 672
References, 674
28 Legal aspects of chocolate manufacture, 675
Richard Wood
28.1 Introduction, 675
28.2 International standards - the Codex Alimentarius, 675
28.3 European standards, 680
28.4 United States of America, 686
28.5 Canada, 689
28.6 BRIC markets, 690
28.7 Use of additives, 690
28.8 Labelling, 692
Conclusions, 693
Further reading, 694
29 Intellectual property: Protecting products and processes, 695
Patrick J. Couzens
29.1 Introduction, 695
29.2 Patents, 695
29.3 Trade marks, 708
29.4 Designs, 711
29.5 Copyright, 712
29.6 Contracts and agreements, 713
29.7 Trade secrets, 715
29.8 Defensive publication, 717
29.9 Strategy, 717
29.10 Enforcement, 723
29.11 How to find help, 724
Conclusions, 725
References, 725
Appendix: Useful web addresses, 726
30 Future trends, 727
Stephen T. Beckett
30.1 Past predictions, 727
30.2 Present position, 729
30.3 Possible future trends, 731
References, 732
Glossary, 734
Useful physical constants, 737
Index, 739
