Preface xiii
1 English Language Learners in School
Who Are English Language Learners?
How Can I Get to Know My English Language Learners?
Getting Basic Information When a New Student Arrives
Classroom Activities That Let You Get to Know Your Students
How Do Cultural Differences Affect Teaching and Learning?
Culture in the Classroom Context
Definitions of Culture
Becoming an Effective Participant-Observer in Your Own Classroom
Sociolinguistic Interactions in the Classroom
Culturally Related Responses to Classroom Organization
Literacy Traditions from Home and Community
Who Am I in the Lives of My Students?
How Can I Ease Newcomers into the Routines of My
Classroom When They Know Little or No English?
First Things First: Safety and Security
Creating a Sense of Belonging
Current Policy Trends Affecting the Education of English Learners
Academic Standards and Assessment
High-Stakes Testing
Education Policy Specific to English Learners
What Kinds of Programs Exist to Meet the Needs of English
Language Learners?
Bilingual Education Programs
English Language Instructional Programs
English Language Learners in the General Education Classroom
Quality Indicators to Look for in Programs Serving English Learners
Using Research and Expert Views to Inform Practice
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Activities
2 Second Language Acquisition
What Do You Know When You Know a Language? Defining
Language Proficiency as Communicative Competence
Classroom Example of Language Use in Social Context
Literal and Figurative Language
Language, Power, Social Standing, and Identity
Language as an Instrument and Symbol of Power
Language or Dialect?
Personal Identity and Ways of Speaking: The Case of Ebonics
Language Acquisition Theories
First Language Acquisition Theories
Second Language Acquisition Theories
Beyond Social Interaction in Second Language Acquisition Theory
Learning a Second Language in School: Processes and Factors
Second Language Acquisition Contexts: Formal Study versus
immersion in a Country Where the Language Is Spoken
Effects of Age on Social Opportunities for Language Development
Age and the Interplay of Sociocultural, Personality,
and Cognitive Factors
Effects of Age on Cognitive-Academic Functioning: Differences
in School Expectations of Younger and Older Learners
Teacher Expectations for English Learner Achievement
Language Used for Social Interaction versus Language Used
for Academic Learning
Learning to Use English in Socially and Culturally Appropriate Ways
Comprehensible Input and Social Interaction
What about Language Learning Errors?
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Activities
3 Classroom Practices for English Learner Instruction
Standards-Based Instruction and Assessment
Differentiated Instruction (DI)
Content-Based Instruction (CBI)
Sheltered Instruction or Specially Designed Academic Instruction
in English (SDAIE)
Sheltered Instruction or SDAIE: A Science Example with Fourth Graders
Sheltered Instruction or SDAIE: A Literature Example with Kindergartners
Sheltered Instruction or SDAIE: A Secondary Social Science Example
with High School Students
Planning for Differentiated, Sheltered Instruction or SDAIE
Group Work
Organizing Group Work
Cooperative Learning Methods
Phases of Cooperative Group Development
Jigsaw
Thematic Instruction
Organizing Thematic Instruction
Functional Language and Literacy Uses in Thematic Instruction
Creating Variety in Language and Literacy Uses
Scaffolding
Scaffolding: A KEEP Example
Scaffolds for First and Second Language Reading and Writing
Assessment of English Learners
English Learner Assessment: Definition and Purposes
Identification and Placement of Students Needing Language
Education Support Services
Limitations of Standardized Language Proficiency Tests
Redesignation to FEP
Program Evaluation
Classroom-Based Assessment of Student Learning and Progress
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Activities
4 Oral Language Development in Second Language Acquisition
Oral Language in Perspective
Integration of Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing
Relationships among Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing
Form, Function, and Social Context in Oral Language Use
Describing Oral Language Performance of Beginning and
Intermediate English Learners
Second Language Oral Proficiency of Beginning English Learners
Second Language Oral Proficiency of Intermediate English Learners
Promoting Oral Language Development in the Classroom
Using Games in Second Language Classrooms
Songs
Drama
Dramatizing Poetry
Show and Tell
One Looks, One Doesn't
Tape-Recording Children's Re-Creations of Wordless Book Stories
Taping and Dubbing a Television Show
Choral Reading
Riddles and Jokes
Oral Language Development through Content-Area Instruction
Oral English Development and Use in Mathematics
Oral English Development and Use in Science
Oral English Development and Use in Social Studies
Classroom Assessment of English Learners' Oral Language
Development
The Student Oral Language Observation Matrix (SOLOM)
Checklists and Anecdotal Observations
Differentiating Instruction for Oral Language Development
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Activities
5 Emergent Literacy: English Learners Beginning
to Write and Read
What Does Research Tell Us about the Early Literacy
Development of English Learners?
Contrasting the Emergent Literacy and Reading
Readiness Perspectives
Reading Readiness Perspective
Emergent Literacy Perspective
Differences between Oral and Written Language Development
Highlighting Literacy Functions in Your Classroom
Exploring the Visual Form of Written Language
Development of Alphabetic Writing: Connecting Symbols
and Sounds
Print Concepts That Emerge in Emergent Literacy
Invented or Temporary Spelling: Children Working Out
Sound/Symbol Correspondences
Emergent Literacy in English as a Non-native Language
Home and School Environments That Nurture Emergent Literacy
How Do Home Environments Promote Early Literacy?
Family Literacy Programs
Promoting Parent Involvement in English Learners' Schooling
Classroom Strategies to Promote Early Literacy
Early Literacy Goals
Creating a Literacy-Rich Classroom Environment
Books, Books, Books
Using Daily Routines to Highlight the Forms and Functions of Print
Reading Aloud to Students
Shared Writing and Reading through the Language
Experience Approach
Dialogue Journals
Alphabet Books
Helping Children Recognize and Spell Words Independently
Using Big Books to Teach Sight Words and Phonics
Increasing Students' Sight Word Vocabulary
Phonics
Word Families
Invented or Temporary Spelling and Word Recognition
Developmental Levels in Student Spelling
Summary of Early Literacy Instructional Strategies
Assessing Emergent Literacy Development
Differentiating Instruction for Emergent Literacy Development
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Activities
6 Words and Meaning: English Learners' Vocabulary Development
What Does Research Tell Us About Vocabulary Development in a Second Language?
What Words Do Students Need to Know?
How Do Students Learn New Words?
How Do We Differentiate Vocabulary Assessment and Instruction?
English Language Proficiency Considerations
Primary Language Proficiency Considerations
Vocabulary Assessment for Planning Instruction
A Word About Dictionaries
Beginning Level Vocabulary Learners: Characteristics and Strategies
Total Physical Response
Read Alouds
Word Cards
Word Wall Dictionary
Picture Dictionaries
Working with Idioms
Intermediate Level Vocabulary Learners: Characteristics and Strategies
Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy
Word Wheel
Word Wizard
Contextual Redefinition
Vocabulary Journals
Dictionary Use
Teaching Prefixes and Suffixes
Word Learning Strategies Identified as Useful by Older Learners
Assessing Second Language Learners Vocabulary Progress
Differentiating Vocabulary Instruction
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
7 English Learners and Process Writing
Research on Second Language Writing
What Is Process Writing?
Experiencing Process Writing: I Remember
Students' Responses to I Remember
How Process Writing Helps English Learners
Collaborative Contexts for Process Writing
Response Groups
Peer Editing Groups
Publishing Student Writing
Developmental Phases in Second Language Writing
Description of Beginning Writers
Strategies to Assist Beginning Writers
Oral Discussion
Partner Stories Using Pictures and Wordless Books
Concept Books: Creating a Teaching Library
Peek-A-Boo Books for Younger Students and Riddle Books for
Older Students
Pattern Poems
From Personal Journals to Dialogue Journals to Buddy Journals
Improvisational Sign Language
Life Murals
Clustering
Freewriting
Description of Intermediate Writers
Strategies for Intermediate Writers
Show and Not Tell
Sentence Combining
Sentence Shortening
Sentence Models
Mapping
Assessing English Learners' Writing Progress
Portfolio Assessment
Holistic Scoring
Working with Errors in Student Writing
Balancing Goals: Fluency, Form, Correctness
Balancing Instruction: Scaffolds, Models, and Direct Instruction
Differentiating Instruction for Writing Development
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Activities
8 Reading and Literature Instruction for English
Language Learners
What Does Research Tell Us about Reading in a
Second Language?
Second Language Readers
English Language Learners and Background Knowledge
Reading Processes of Proficient Readers
Elements of Reading Comprehension and Metacognition:
A Cartoon Example
Background Knowledge and Inferences
Decoding and Vocabulary
Metacognition: Thinking about Thinking
Text Structure
Working in Literature Response Groups
Steps That Prepare Students to Work in Response Groups
How Response to Literature Assists English Language Learners
The Many Benefits of Independent Reading
Independent, Instructional, and Frustration Levels of Reading
Five-Finger Exercise
Graded Books
Electronic Books (E-Books)
Developmental Phases in Second Language Reading
Beginning Readers: Characteristics and Strategies
Language-Experience Approach
Providing Quality Literature for Beginners
Pattern Books
Illustrating Stories and Poems
Shared Reading with Big Books
Guided Reading
Directed Listening-Thinking Activity (DL-TA)
Readers' Theater
Story Mapping
Intermediate Readers: Characteristics and Strategies
Cognitive Mapping
Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DR-TA)
Literature Response Journals
Developing Scripts for Readers' Theater
Adapting Stories into Plays and Scripts for Film and Videotape
Using Computers and CD-ROMs to Enhance Learning
Assessing Second Language Readers' Progress
Assessing with Materials Students Bring to Class
Informal Assessment
Miscue Analysis
Informal Reading Inventories
Running Records
Student Self-Assessment
Differentiating Reading and Literature Instruction
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Activities
9 Content Reading and Writing: Prereading
and During Reading
What Does Research Tell Us about Reading and Writing across
the Curriculum for English Language Learners?
Background Information on Students' Interactions with Texts
Aesthetic and Efferent Interactions with Texts
Effects of Text Structure on Comprehension and Memory
Literary Structure
Metacognition and Learning from Text
Matching Students and Texts
Evaluating Students' Interaction with Text Using the Group
Reading Inventory (GRI)
Strategies to Promote Reading Comprehension
Prereading Strategies: Developing Motivation, Purpose, and
Background Knowledge
Teacher Talk: Making Purposes Clear
Field Trips and Films
Simulation Games
Experiments
Developing Vocabulary before Students Read a Text
Structured Overviews
Preview Guides
Anticipation Guides
During-Reading Strategies: Monitoring Comprehension
Using Headings and Subheadings
Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DR-TA)
Vocabulary Strategies during Reading
Using Clustering to Develop Vocabulary in Context
Jigsaw Procedure
Learning Logs
Differentiating Instruction for Content Area Reading
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Activities
10 Content Reading and Writing: Postreading
Strategies for Organizing and Remembering
Postreading Strategies for Students
Semantic Feature Analysis for Vocabulary Development
after Reading
Rehearsing to Organize and Remember Information
Venn Diagrams 3
Mapping 3
Writing as a Learning Tool across the Curriculum
Journals and Learning Logs
Developing Topics and Student Self-Selection of Topics in
Content Areas
Photo Essays: Combining Direct Experience, the Visual Mode,
and Writing
Written and Oral Collaborative Research Projects
K-W-L, a Strategy that Fosters Thinking before, during, and
after Reading
Theme Studies: Providing a Meaningful Learning Context
Introducing the Topic and Choosing Study Questions
Organizing Instruction
Instructional Modifications for English Learners
Assessment
Portfolio Assessment
Using Multiple Measures for Assessment
Differentiating Instruction for Content Area Learning
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Activities
11 Reading Assessment and Instruction
Theoretical Approach to Literacy Assessment
Language Proficiency: Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing
Looking Closely at the Reading Process in English
Resources That Non-Native English Speakers Bring to English Reading
Assessing Reading Using an Informal Reading Inventory
Using IRIs to Systematically Assess Students' Status and Progress
Reading Levels Can Be Established Using Informal Reading Inventories
Procedures for Determining Independent, Instructional, and
Frustration Levels
Sample Informal Reading Inventory
A List of Commercial Informal Reading Inventories
Other Procedures for Evaluating and Helping Readers
Linking Assessment and Instruction
Echo Reading
Guided Reading
ReQuest Procedure
Read Alouds
Summary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Activities
References 412
Author Index 433
Subject Index 439
